Introduction: A Shadow Over the Throne

In the final years of the 19th century, the German Empire stood at the zenith of its power, a rapidly industrializing nation under the mercurial rule of Kaiser Wilhelm II. Yet behind the pomp of imperial ceremony and the machinery of state, a scandal was brewing that would shake the monarchy to its core. At the heart of this drama was Philipp zu Eulenburg, a diplomat, confidant of the emperor, and central figure in a secretive circle of aristocratic men whose private lives would eventually become a matter of public disgrace and political turmoil. Known among critics as the “black knight” who led the young emperor astray, Eulenburg embodied the contradictions of an era—a man of influence whose personal indiscretions threatened not only his own position but the stability of the imperial government itself. This is the story of how private vice and public power fatally intertwined in the twilight of the Hohenzollern dynasty.

The Ascent of Philipp zu Eulenburg

Philipp zu Eulenburg was born into an old Prussian noble family in 1847. His early career followed a conventional path for someone of his station: military service, followed by diplomatic postings. What set Eulenburg apart was his charm, cultural sophistication, and ability to cultivate powerful friendships. He first met the future Kaiser Wilhelm II in the 1880s, and the two quickly formed a close bond. Eulenburg, older and more worldly, became a mentor and father figure to the impulsive young monarch, who had ascended the throne in 1888 following the brief reigns of his father and grandfather.

Eulenburg’s influence grew steadily. He played a key role in what became known as the “Chancellor Crisis” of the 1890s, advising Wilhelm II to appoint Bernhard von Bülow first as Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs and later as Chancellor of the German Empire. This move was intended to consolidate the Kaiser’s desire for “personal rule,” bypassing the more traditional, collegial style of government favored by earlier chancellors like Otto von Bismarck. Eulenburg’s advice reflected his belief that a pliable chancellor would allow Wilhelm to pursue his vision of a more assertive, globally engaged Germany. For a time, the strategy worked; von Bülow proved adept at managing the Kaiser’s moods and implementing his policies, all while Eulenburg operated as the eminence grise behind the scenes.

A Double Life: Diplomacy and Discretion

Eulenburg’s diplomatic career took him to several European capitals, including Munich and Vienna. As Prussian envoy to Bavaria, and later as German ambassador to Austria-Hungary, he moved in elite circles where his artistic tastes and conversational brilliance made him a popular figure. Yet beneath the surface, Eulenburg led a life of considerable risk. Homosexuality was criminalized under Paragraph 175 of the German penal code, and those accused could face imprisonment, social ruin, or worse.

Eulenburg was careful to avoid postings in countries where laws against homosexuality were even stricter than in Germany. In Bavaria, where attitudes were relatively permissive, his behavior still attracted gossip. In Vienna, he was placed under surveillance by the secret police—not to gather evidence for prosecution, but to protect him from potential blackmailers. Despite these precautions, a professional swimming attendant successfully extorted 60,000 marks from Eulenburg, threatening to expose his activities. When Eulenburg had the audacity to request that state funds cover this blackmail payment, Chancellor Chlodwig von Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst was furious, refusing the demand and deepening the tensions within the imperial administration.

The Liebenberg Circle: An Imperial Retreat

At the center of Eulenburg’s social world was his estate at Liebenberg, which became the gathering place for a close-knit group of aristocrats, artists, and military officers. This “Liebenberg Round Table” included figures like Count Kuno von Moltke, who served as military attaché in Vienna at Eulenburg’s behest, and others who shared Eulenburg’s aesthetic sensibilities and, in many cases, his homosexual inclinations. The Kaiser was a frequent guest, relishing the opportunity to escape the formality of court life. At Liebenberg, he could indulge in amateur theatricals, spiritualist séances, and intimate conversations, finding in Eulenburg the unconditional admiration he craved but had lacked during his strict upbringing.

Wilhelm II’s attachment to this circle was not primarily sexual—there is no credible evidence that the Kaiser engaged in homosexual acts—but emotional and psychological. He referred to Eulenburg as his “only friend,” and the group’s private nickname for him, “the darling” or “little sweetheart,” reflected the infantilizing dynamic that had developed. In this environment, political advice was mingled with personal affection, and the boundaries between public duty and private loyalty became dangerously blurred.

Unraveling: Marriage, Blackmail, and Public Exposure

The first cracks in this carefully constructed world appeared with the disastrous marriage of Kuno von Moltke. In 1897, Moltke married Lily von Kruse, a young woman perhaps chosen as a beard to conceal his true inclinations. When she accompanied him to Vienna, she witnessed the intimate relationship between her husband and Eulenburg. Horrified, she sought a divorce and threatened to expose them both. Moltke and his allies responded by attempting to have her committed to a psychiatric institution—a common tactic used against inconvenient women at the time. Lily turned to her doctor, Ernst Schweninger, who also treated Bismarck and one of Wilhelm II’s sisters. Through this connection, the story reached Maximilian Harden, a sharp-witted journalist and critic of the Kaiser’s inner circle.

Harden, editor of the magazine Die Zukunft , had long been suspicious of Eulenburg’s influence. In November 1906, he published the first in a series of articles hinting at homosexuality within the Liebenberg Circle. Using coded language and classical allusions, Harden accused Eulenburg and Moltke of corrupting the moral atmosphere of the court. Although he couched his criticism in terms of political morality, his rhetoric increasingly took on a homophobic tone, playing on popular prejudices to undermine the Kaiser’s favorites.

The Scandals Erupt: Trials and Public Speculation

The years 1907–1909 saw a cascade of lawsuits, countersuits, and sensational trials. Eulenburg, who had resigned as ambassador in 1902 and withdrawn from public life, was forced to defend himself in court. Moltke sued Harden for libel, only to have his own private life dissected in open court. Witnesses came forward with lurid details of gatherings at Liebenberg, boat trips on Lake Starnberg, and the use of affectionate nicknames. Although direct evidence of illegal acts was scarce—Eulenburg consistently denied any physical relationships—the impression of a decadent, morally suspect clique was firmly established.

The scandal reached the highest levels of government. Wilhelm II, initially protective of his friends, grew increasingly alarmed as the press coverage intensified. In May 1907, Crown Prince Wilhelm showed his father the articles in Die Zukunft, forcing the Kaiser to confront the rumors directly. Wilhelm insisted that he had been unaware of any homosexuality among his associates and condemned such behavior as criminal. Yet his protestations rang hollow to many observers. How could he not have known, given the intimacy he shared with Eulenburg and the open secret of Moltke’s failed marriage?

Cultural and Social Repercussions

The Eulenburg scandal occurred against a backdrop of broader social change. Germany was experiencing rapid urbanization, the rise of a mass press, and increasingly visible subcultures, including homosexual emancipation movements led by figures like Magnus Hirschfeld. Harden’s attacks tapped into deep anxieties about gender, power, and national decline. To critics, the Liebenberg Circle symbolized the weakness and effeminacy of the ruling elite—a stark contrast to the militaristic, hyper-masculine image the Kaiser liked to project.

The scandal also exposed the double standards of Wilhelmine society. While homosexual acts were illegal, aristocratic men had often been able to discreetly manage their lives without interference. The Eulenburg case showed that this discretion had limits, especially when political rivalries were involved. Harden, though motivated by a desire to reform the monarchy, ultimately reinforced punitive attitudes toward homosexuality. His campaign contributed to a climate of suspicion and repression that would persist for decades.

Legacy and Historical Significance

The immediate impact of the scandal was the destruction of Eulenburg’s reputation and the dissolution of the Liebenberg Circle. Eulenburg, though never convicted, lived out his days in disgrace, his health broken by the strain of the trials. Wilhelm II, deeply embittered, became more isolated and erratic in his policies, contributing to the reckless diplomacy that led to World War I. The scandal weakened the monarchy’s prestige and revealed the fragility of its institutional foundations.

In a broader sense, the Eulenburg affair offers a window into the personal dimensions of power. It illustrates how emotional needs and private relationships can shape political decisions, often with unintended consequences. Wilhelm II’s search for validation made him dependent on a small group of sycophants, blinding him to their flaws and to the realities of governing a complex modern state. The scandal also highlights the role of the media in holding power to account—even if, in this case, the motives were mixed and the methods sensationalistic.

Today, the Eulenburg scandal is studied not only as a political crisis but as a case study in the history of sexuality. It reveals the tensions between public morality and private behavior, and the ways in which personal lives can become entangled with affairs of state. In the end, the fall of Philipp zu Eulenburg serves as a cautionary tale about the dangers of proximity to power—and the price of living a double life in the full glare of history.