The Primitive Origins of Human Necessities

The ancient Chinese text Liji·Liyun provides a remarkable window into humanity’s earliest struggles for survival: “In ancient times, before the former kings had houses, they lived in caves during winter and in tree nests during summer. Before discovering fire, they ate fruits of plants and flesh of birds and beasts, drinking their blood and consuming their fur. Without hemp or silk, they clothed themselves in feathers and hides.” This vivid description encapsulates the harsh realities of prehistoric existence, where every aspect of daily life represented a battle against nature’s elements.

Archaeological evidence supports this textual account, showing that early humans in China followed a similar developmental trajectory as other ancient civilizations worldwide. The progression from cave dwellings to constructed shelters mirrors patterns seen in Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley, though with distinct regional characteristics. What makes the Chinese record particularly valuable is its conscious preservation of these early practices through ritual memory, even after more advanced technologies had been developed. The text notes how ceremonies maintained archaic elements like “ming shui” (clear water used before alcohol was invented) as commemorative symbols, creating a living bridge between past and present.

The Three Foundations of Ancient Nutrition

Ancient Chinese dietary practices evolved around three primary food sources, each tied to specific environments and developing technologies:

1. Hunting-based nutrition: In colder or mountainous regions, people relied on hunting wild animals. The description of “drinking blood and consuming fur” suggests minimal food processing, likely eating meat raw or dried. This practice wasn’t unique to China – similar descriptions appear in early European accounts of northern peoples.

2. Plant-based diets: In warmer, vegetated areas, people consumed various wild plants, seeds, and fruits. The Mozi text refers to this as “su shi” (plain eating), originally meaning plant-based foods before becoming associated with vegetarianism. Ancient people developed remarkable knowledge about edible wild plants, with Liji·Yueling documenting organized gathering of wild vegetables during winter months.

3. Aquatic resources: River and lake communities relied heavily on fish and shellfish. Unlike the Liji·Liyun which omits fish, other texts like Mencius and Shijing clearly show fish as common fare. The Gongyang Commentary tells how a high minister’s humble fish meal earned admiration, suggesting fish was considered ordinary people’s food.

What’s striking is how these dietary patterns shaped Chinese medicine. The Shennong Bencao Jing (Divine Farmer’s Materia Medica), China’s earliest pharmacological text, emerged from this accumulated knowledge of plant properties. The legendary Shennong’s tasting of hundreds of herbs reflects this practical experimentation, not individual heroism.

The Agricultural Revolution and Dietary Refinement

The transition from gathering to agriculture marked a turning point in Chinese dietary history. As the Liji notes, “Later sages arose who cultivated the benefits of fire.” This simple statement encompasses a technological revolution – the mastery of fire led to pottery making, metalworking, and sophisticated cooking methods.

Four primary cooking techniques developed:
– Pao (wrapping and roasting in clay)
– Fan (direct roasting over fire)
– Peng (boiling in vessels)
– Zhi (grilling on skewers)

The invention of pottery vessels was particularly transformative, allowing for boiling foods and creating mixtures that were easier to digest. The Liji describes early “stone boiling” methods where food was cooked on heated rocks, a technique still used by some northern tribes when the text was compiled.

As agriculture stabilized food supplies, grain became the dietary foundation. The evolution from “hundred grains” to focusing on five primary grains (wheat, rice, millet, barley, and soybeans) shows increasing selectivity. The Lüshi Chunqiu notes how seasonal crops affected health, linking agricultural progress directly to population well-being.

Social Stratification Through Food

Diet became an increasing marker of social status over time. Early egalitarianism faded as meat consumption became class-specific:

– Beef: Reserved for rulers
– Mutton: For high officials
– Pork/dog: For lower aristocracy
– Fish: Common people’s protein

The Yan Tie Lun (Discourses on Salt and Iron) contrasts ancient simplicity with Han Dynasty extravagance, where lavish banquets became status symbols. This mirrors similar developments in Rome, where sumptuary laws attempted to curb dining excesses.

Alcohol production followed agricultural surpluses. While legend credits Yi Di with inventing wine, archaeological evidence shows alcohol production beginning in the Neolithic period. By the Zhou Dynasty, a sophisticated alcohol classification system existed, with five ceremonial grades and three drinking varieties. The Book of Documents and Shijing contain warnings about alcohol abuse, showing that overindulgence was already a social concern three millennia ago.

The Material Evolution of Clothing

Clothing materials progressed through distinct phases:

1. Primitive materials: Early humans used available resources – animal hides in hunting societies, woven grasses in agricultural communities. The Liji·Jiaotesheng describes yellow grass hats as peasant attire, while the Shijing mentions rain hats made of bulrush.

2. Textile revolution: The introduction of hemp and silk represented a quantum leap. While legend credits the Yellow Emperor’s consort Leizu with discovering silk, archaeological evidence shows silk production dating back to 3600 BCE in the Neolithic period. Hemp’s origins remain unclear but became crucial for everyday clothing.

3. Cotton introduction: Unlike the ancient origins of silk and hemp, cotton arrived much later. Initially mistaken as a tree (called “jibei” in the History of the Southern Dynasties), cotton cultivation spread from southern regions during the Song and Yuan dynasties. The story of Huang Daopo, who introduced advanced spinning techniques from Hainan in the 13th century, illustrates how technological diffusion enabled cotton’s widespread adoption.

The Cultural Significance of Garments

Clothing styles carried deep symbolic meaning in ancient China:

– Ceremonial wear: The “mian” crown with its hanging beads represented imperial authority. Its unusual design, with dangling jade beads and ear-plugs, preserved archaic elements whose original purpose had been forgotten.

– Social markers: The transition from hides to woven fabrics distinguished civilized people from “barbarians.” The Shenyi (deep garment), an early one-piece robe, became standard attire for scholars and officials, adaptable for both formal and informal occasions.

– Class distinctions: Sumptuary laws regulated clothing colors and materials. While white was originally common for all classes, it later became associated with mourning. Purple dyes, extremely rare and expensive, became linked with high status.

The Book of Rites documents how clothing regulations reflected social hierarchy, with children and servants wearing shorter, simpler garments. This stratification intensified over time, reaching its peak during the Ming Dynasty’s elaborate rank badge system.

Architectural Progress: From Caves to Palaces

The evolution of Chinese shelter followed three key stages:

1. Natural shelters: The earliest humans adapted existing environments – caves in winter, tree nests in summer. This pattern appears across early civilizations worldwide.

2. Constructed dwellings: The development of tools enabled semi-subterranean homes in the Neolithic period, progressing to wooden-framed houses during the Xia and Shang dynasties.

3. Monumental architecture: By the Zhou Dynasty, sophisticated palace complexes with distinct ceremonial and residential areas emerged. The Kaogongji (Artificers’ Record) documents standardized measurements for imperial construction.

Interestingly, Chinese architecture retained symbolic connections to these primitive origins. The mingtang (bright hall) ceremonial structure preserved elements of ancient pit dwellings, while roof designs echoed prehistoric thatching techniques.

The Enduring Legacy of Ancient Adaptations

These early developments in clothing, food, and shelter established patterns that endured throughout Chinese history:

1. Culinary traditions: The ancient emphasis on grains and vegetables shaped the Chinese diet’s fundamental structure. Cooking techniques like steaming and stir-frying developed from early methods described in the Liji.

2. Textile continuity: Silk remained a prestige material for millennia, while hemp persisted as common folk’s fabric. The later introduction of cotton followed similar weaving traditions established for earlier materials.

3. Architectural principles: The courtyard house layout, developing from early clan compounds, became a defining feature of Chinese domestic architecture.

4. Social rituals: Many dining customs and clothing etiquette rules trace back to practices documented in these ancient texts. The Confucian emphasis on proper conduct during meals and ceremonies preserves elements of these early traditions.

The Liji account, while compressed, captures humanity’s universal journey from struggling against nature to shaping culture. What makes the Chinese record distinctive is its conscious preservation of this evolutionary process within living tradition, allowing modern people to maintain tangible connections with their most ancient predecessors. This continuity, rare in world civilizations, forms the deep roots of Chinese cultural identity.