From Yanjing to Beijing: The Rise of a Capital

Beijing’s formal status as a national capital began in 1153 under the Jin Dynasty, when it was known as Yanjing. The Jin rulers renamed it Zhongdu (Middle Capital), establishing its political significance. The Jin’s Zhongdu layout still influences modern Beijing—Guang’anmen’s inner and outer streets follow the east-west axis of the ancient city. After the Jin’s fall, the Yuan Dynasty retained the site but abandoned the war-damaged Zhongdu. Instead, Kublai Khan built Dadu (Great Capital) northeast of the old city, incorporating grand palaces, canals, and urban planning that shaped Beijing’s foundation.

The Ming Dynasty’s Yongle Emperor relocated the capital from Nanjing to Beijing in 1420 after a 17-year construction project, adding defensive outer walls in 1553. The Qing Dynasty continued this legacy, cementing Beijing’s role as China’s political heart for centuries.

China’s Six Great Historical Capitals

Beyond Beijing, five other cities served as pivotal capitals:

### Xi’an: Cradle of Dynasties
Situated in the fertile Wei River Valley, Xi’an emerged as a political center during the Western Zhou (11th century BCE). The Han Dynasty’s Chang’an (202 BCE) became a cosmopolitan hub linking China to the Silk Road. Under the Tang (618–907 CE), it was the world’s largest city, blending global cultures.

### Luoyang: Crossroads of Empires
Zhou Dynasty’s eastern capital (770 BCE), Luoyang hosted the Eastern Zhou, Han, and Tang courts. Its strategic location made it a cultural and administrative nexus, especially under Empress Wu Zetian.

### Kaifeng: Commercial Powerhouse
As the Northern Song’s capital (960–1127), Kaifeng thrived with urban innovations like night markets and a canal network, setting precedents for economic urbanization.

### Nanjing: Southern Stronghold
A “Six Dynasties” capital (229–589), Nanjing later anchored the Ming’s early reign and the Taiping Rebellion’s short-lived Heavenly Kingdom (1853–1864).

### Hangzhou: Aesthetic Majesty
The Southern Song’s Lin’an (1127–1279) combined governance with poetic landscapes, immortalized by Marco Polo’s accounts of its beauty.

The Celestial Calendar: Tiangan Dizhi

China’s 60-year cyclical dating system, combining 10 Heavenly Stems and 12 Earthly Branches, originated in the Shang Dynasty (1600–1046 BCE). By the Han era, zodiac animals paired with branches (e.g., Rat for Zi), creating a cultural chronology still used in festivals and astrology.

Land and Power: Shifts in Ownership

### From Communal to Kingly Rule
Early agrarian societies practiced collective farming (e.g., Zhou’s “Well-Field System”). The Qin’s legalist reforms (4th century BCE) privatized land, enabling sales but exacerbating peasant dispossession.

### State vs. Gentry Control
Han “Public Fields” and Tang equal-field systems attempted state oversight, yet landlord dominance persisted until Mao’s land reforms.

Taxation Through the Ages

### Corvée to Coinage
– Zhou: Tribute labor (“Gong”).
– Han: Head taxes and 30:1 grain levies.
– Tang’s Two-Tax System (780): Asset-based payments in silver, reducing reliance on forced labor.
– Ming’s Single Whip (1581): Consolidated taxes into silver dues per acre, streamlining bureaucracy.

Military Transformations

### Tribal Bands to Standing Armies
– Zhou: Chariot warfare (e.g., 700 “chariot units” denoted power).
– Han: Universal conscription (21–56-year-old males).
– Tang Fubing: Hereditary garrisons with tax exemptions.
– Song: Mass mercenaries (1.2 million troops by 1040).
– Qing Banners: Manchu tribal units co-opting Han “Green Standards.”

Enduring Legacies

Beijing’s urban grid and Hangzhou’s garden aesthetics reflect imperial visions, while land privatization debates echo in modern rural policies. The zodiac calendar and silver-tax precedents remain cultural touchstones, illustrating China’s continuous reinvention across millennia.

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