The Early Foundations of Chinese Narrative

Chinese fiction traces its origins far earlier than drama, yet reached maturity considerably later. While works like Zhuangzi and Liezi contained embryonic fictional narratives as early as the Warring States period, China’s great novelistic masterpieces – Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Water Margin, and Journey to the West – only emerged during the Yuan dynasty, long after zaju drama had reached its zenith and chuanqi long plays had appeared.

The Hanshu Yiwenzhi records fifteen schools of early fiction from the Han dynasty, though none survive intact. Among extant works, the Yandanzi, recounting Prince Dan of Yan’s revenge against Qin Shi Huang through the assassin Jing Ke, stands as the earliest example. Other attributed Han works like Shenyi Jing and Shizhou Ji (purportedly by Dongfang Shuo) or Hanwu Gushi and Hanwu Neizhuan (attributed to Ban Gu) likely date from later periods, with only Wu Yue Chunqiu and Yue Jueshu being reliably Han productions.

The Six Dynasties Transformation

During the Six Dynasties period (220-589), fiction developed along two distinct paths. The first category comprised supernatural tales like Soushen Ji (Records of Spirits) by Gan Bao and Xu Qixie Ji, which profoundly influenced later ghost stories up through the 18th century. The second category focused on worldly anecdotes and notable sayings, exemplified by Xijing Zaji (Miscellaneous Records of the Western Capital) and Shishuo Xinyu (A New Account of Tales of the World).

Buddhist influence became pronounced in supernatural fiction during this period, with works like Liu Yiqing’s Xuanyan Ji and Wang Yan’s Mingxiang Ji emphasizing karmic retribution and miraculous salvation. These tales often followed formulaic patterns, as seen in this Soushen Ji excerpt where a skeptic encounters incontrovertible proof of ghosts:

“Ruan Zhan, styled Qianli, consistently maintained the non-existence of ghosts… Suddenly a visitor arrived… After prolonged debate about spirits, the guest grew angry: ‘Ghosts have been attested since ancient times – how can you deny them? I myself am a ghost!’ Transforming into a monstrous shape, he then vanished. Ruan turned pale and died within the year.”

Tang Dynasty: The Golden Age of Chuanqi

Tang writers perfected the short story form through chuanqi (tales of marvels), marked by intricate plots and vivid narration unlike anything preceding. These tales became foundational for later poetry and drama, attaining in Chinese literature a status comparable to Homer’s epics in Europe.

Chuanqi stories fall into three categories:

1. Romantic Tales: Including Jiang Fang’s Huo Xiaoyu Zhuan (a tragic love story of a courtesan betrayed by her scholar-lover) and Yuan Zhen’s Yingying Zhuan (the original Cui Yingying story later adapted as The Western Chamber). Bai Xingjian’s Li Wa Zhuan (about a courtesan redeeming a dissipated scholar) and Chen Xuanyou’s Li Hun Ji (a dreamlike tale of a soul separating from its body) also belong here.

2. Heroic Stories: Influenced by Sima Qian’s Assassin Biographies, works like Hongxian Zhuan (about a female servant saving her master through supernatural means) and Du Guangting’s Qiuran Ke Zhuan (featuring the legendary Red Whisk) reflected contemporary hopes for champions against warlord oppression.

3. Supernatural Narratives: Collections like Niu Sengru’s Xuanguai Lu and Li Fuji’s Xu Xuanguai Lu contained numerous marvel tales. Standouts include Shen Jiji’s Zhenzhong Ji (The World Inside a Pillow) about the illusory nature of worldly success, and Li Gongzuo’s Nanke Taishou Zhuan (Governor of the Southern Branch), where an ant colony represents the vanity of human ambition.

Song Dynasty Vernacular Innovation

While Song dynasty literati produced lackluster classical tales, a revolution occurred in vernacular storytelling. Professional “speakers” developed specialized genres including:
– “Silver-worded tales” (xiaoshuo) of romance and the supernatural
– Scripture expositions (tanjing)
– History recitals (jiangshi)

Extant texts like New Compilation of the Five Dynasties History Pinghua and Stories Old and New (preserved in Jingben Tongsu Xiaoshuo) show these oral traditions’ narrative sophistication. The Five Dynasties Pinghua begins with cosmological poetry before recounting Liu Zhiyuan’s rise from poverty – material later adapted into the White Hare play.

Ming-Qing Masterworks

The Ming-Qing period witnessed Chinese fiction’s full flowering with four monumental works:

1. Romance of the Three Kingdoms: Luo Guanzhong’s 14th-century historical novel, drawing from both official histories and popular traditions. Its terse classical style contrasts sharply with:

2. Water Margin: Attributed to Shi Nai’an and Luo Guanzhong, this outlaw saga shows unprecedented character development, though its portrayal of women remains stereotyped.

3. Journey to the West: Wu Cheng’en’s 16th-century comic fantasy builds upon earlier versions like the Datang Sanzang Qujing Shihua, transforming the Tang monk’s pilgrimage into a dazzling allegory.

4. Jin Ping Mei: The anonymous “first realistic novel” (circa 1610) provides an unflinching portrait of merchant-class decadence through the rise and fall of Ximen Qing.

The Legacy of Chinese Fiction

These works established narrative conventions that would dominate Chinese popular culture. Water Margin inspired countless rebellion stories; Three Kingdoms became the template for historical fiction; Journey to the West spawned mythological fantasies; while Jin Ping Mei pioneered family sagas. Their characters – the cunning Zhuge Liang, rebellious Monkey King, tragic Pan Jinlian – entered the cultural lexicon, demonstrating fiction’s power to shape national imagination across centuries.