The Challenge of Authenticating Early Confucian Texts

The study of classical Confucianism presents scholars with a unique dilemma familiar to historians of ancient philosophy. Just as multiple shops in Shanghai might claim to be the “authentic Lu Gaojian” restaurant, early Confucian texts are filled with unattributed “The Master said” passages, making it difficult to distinguish original teachings from later additions. This phenomenon mirrors challenges in Greek philosophy, where Plato’s dialogues all feature Socrates as protagonist and Pythagorean texts frequently invoke “The Teacher said.”

This textual ambiguity requires careful methodological scrutiny when examining works like The Book of Rites (Liji), where only certain chapters genuinely represent Warring States period (475-221 BCE) Confucian philosophy. For understanding 4th-3rd century BCE Confucian thought, three texts prove particularly valuable: The Great Learning (Daxue), The Doctrine of the Mean (Zhongyong), and Mencius.

Dating and Authorship Controversies

The origins of The Great Learning remain shrouded in mystery. While the appearance of “Master Zeng said” led traditional scholars to attribute it to Zengzi and his disciples, this claim lacks solid evidence. However, compared to other Liji chapters like “Confucius at Home” or “Confucius at Leisure,” The Great Learning appears more reliable.

Traditional accounts credit The Doctrine of the Mean to Zisi, Confucius’s grandson. Both texts likely predate Mencius and Xunzi, serving as crucial bridges in Confucian intellectual development. Their existence helps explain how:
– The extremely family-centered early Confucianism could produce Mencius’s individualistic philosophy
– The pro-monarchy Confucian tradition developed Mencius’s proto-democratic ideas
– The practical ethics of early Confucianism evolved into the psychological approaches of Mencius and Xunzi

While these texts probably originated in the 4th century BCE, they undoubtedly contain later interpolations, with The Doctrine of the Mean being particularly composite.

Methodological Innovations in Confucian Practice

What made The Great Learning and The Doctrine of the Mean profoundly influential—especially for later Neo-Confucians—was their systematic methodology. As Cheng Yi noted about The Great Learning:
“Among ancient texts showing the proper sequence of learning, we rely solely on this preserved work.”

Zhu Xi similarly praised The Doctrine of the Mean:
“Among all previous sage writings, none illuminate fundamental principles and reveal profound mysteries so clearly and completely.”

The Great Learning outlines its famous “eight steps”:
1. Investigation of things (gewu)
2. Extension of knowledge (zhizhi)
3. Sincerity of intention (chengyi)
4. Rectification of the heart (zhengxin)
5. Cultivation of the person (xiushen)
6. Regulation of the family (qijia)
7. Governance of the state (zhiguo)
8. Pacification of the world (ping tianxia)

This creates both an outward progression (from self to world) and inward journey (from knowledge to moral cultivation).

The Doctrine of the Mean presents its foundational triad:
“What Heaven imparts to man is called human nature. To follow our nature is called the Way. Cultivating the Way is called education.”

It emphasizes “cheng” (sincerity/authenticity):
“Sincerity is the Way of Heaven. Achieving sincerity is the human way.”

The text outlines the path to sincerity through:
– Extensive study
– Careful questioning
– Prudent reflection
– Clear discrimination
– Earnest practice

The Confucian Shift Toward Individualism

Early Confucianism’s extreme emphasis on filial piety had created what we might call the “disappearing self” phenomenon—where individuals existed primarily as “my parents’ child” rather than autonomous beings. This produced two philosophical reactions:
1. Radical individualism (Yang Zhu’s “not plucking one hair to benefit the world”)
2. Radical altruism (Mozi’s universal love)

The Great Learning mediates these extremes by making self-cultivation the foundation of all ethics and governance. Compare these two declarations:
– Classic of Filial Piety: “From the Son of Heaven down to commoners, there has never been anyone who failed to practice filial piety without bringing ruin.”
– The Great Learning: “From the Son of Heaven down to commoners, all must regard cultivation of the person as the root.”

This shift from filial piety to self-cultivation marks a watershed in Confucian thought.

The Doctrine of the Mean develops this individualism further through its concept of “sincerity” as the full realization of one’s innate nature. Its vision culminates in:
“The utmost sincerity can fully develop one’s nature… can assist the transforming and nourishing powers of Heaven and Earth, and thus form a triad with Heaven and Earth.”

Contrast this with Classic of Filial Piety’s goal of making fathers “match Heaven”—a fundamentally different orientation.

Psychological Turn in Confucian Philosophy

These texts represent Confucianism’s “inward turn”—from external rituals to internal psychology. While earlier Confucians like Zengzi practiced self-examination (“I daily examine myself on three points”), their focus remained behavioral (loyalty, trustworthiness, study).

The Great Learning introduces crucial psychological distinctions between:
– Xin (heart-mind): The seat of cognition and emotion
– Yi (intention): Directed thought or mental focus

Its discussion of “making intentions sincere” emphasizes authenticity:
“The noble person must be watchful over himself when alone… What fills the interior will manifest externally.”

This anticipates modern concepts of psychological congruence and moral motivation.

The texts develop two approaches to ethics:
1. Motive-based (attitude/intention)
2. Consequence-based (results/effects)

The Great Learning clearly prioritizes motives, as seen in its political philosophy:
“The ruler does not consider wealth his treasure, but righteousness as his treasure.”

The Psychology of Emotional Regulation

The Great Learning and The Doctrine of the Mean offer complementary views on emotional management. The Great Learning warns against emotional extremes:
“When anger, fear, fondness, or anxiety dominate, the mind cannot be correct.”

The Doctrine of the Mean provides a more nuanced view:
“When joy, anger, sorrow, and pleasure have not arisen, this is called equilibrium (zhong). When they arise to their appropriate degrees, this is called harmony (he).”

Rather than eliminating emotions, it advocates for measured expression—like eating enough to satisfy hunger without overindulging. This “golden mean” philosophy critiques both excess and deficiency:
“The Way isn’t practiced—I know why: the wise exceed it and the foolish don’t reach it.”

Enduring Legacy and Modern Relevance

These texts laid foundations for:
1. Neo-Confucian metaphysics (especially the Cheng-Zhu school)
2. East Asian approaches to education and self-cultivation
3. Confucian political theory

Their emphasis on:
– The connection between personal ethics and social order
– Balanced emotional life
– Authentic self-cultivation

Remains profoundly relevant in modern discussions about:
– Leadership ethics
– Education philosophy
– Psychological well-being
– Sustainable social development

The journey from ritual-focused early Confucianism to the psychological depth of these texts represents one of history’s most significant developments in moral philosophy—one that continues to shape East Asian societies and offers insights for global audiences today.