The Ancient Origins of Nuo Rituals
Nuo (nuó), one of China’s oldest ritual traditions, traces its roots to prehistoric times. Early societies attributed diseases and disasters to malevolent spirits, leading to the development of grand exorcism ceremonies known as Da Nuo Yi (Great Nuo Ritual). These rituals, performed on specific dates, involved participants wearing fearsome masks to intimidate and expel evil forces.
By the Zhou Dynasty (1046–256 BCE), Da Nuo Yi had been formalized as a state ceremony, recorded in the Rites of Zhou. For ancient people, Nuo rituals reflected both their limited understanding of nature and their deep reverence for its unseen forces. This practice was not unique to China—anthropologists have identified similar traditions across civilizations, from Greek purification rites to Celtic Samhain (the precursor to Halloween). These shared elements—timing at year’s end, grotesque masks, and communal exorcism—reveal universal human attempts to confront chaos through ritual.
The Han Dynasty Nuo: A Spectacle of Terror
The Book of Later Han provides vivid details about imperial Nuo ceremonies during the Han Dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE). Held on the eve of La Festival (a year-end celebration), the ritual featured:
– 120 child acolytes (zhenzi) beating drums
– A shamanic figure (Fangxiangshi) clad in bearskin and a four-eyed golden mask
– Twelve performers embodying mythical beasts with names like “Strong Beam” and “Ancestor Bright”
This terrifying procession, with its roaring chants and simulated battles against invisible demons, retained strong shamanistic qualities. The masks and performances were designed to overwhelm evil spirits through sheer intimidation—a far cry from later festive interpretations.
The Song Dynasty Transformation: From Ritual to Revelry
By the Song Dynasty (960–1279), Nuo underwent a dramatic secularization. Court records like Dream Pool Essays describe imperial ceremonies where:
– Palace guards and actors replaced solemn priests
– Masks depicted folk deities like Zhong Kui (a ghost-quelling judge) rather than demonic beasts
– Performances incorporated music, dance, and theatrical elements
Scholars of the Qing Dynasty later criticized this shift, lamenting that Nuo had degenerated from a sacred rite into mere entertainment (“treated as play”). Yet this evolution mirrored broader societal changes—urbanization, commercialization, and the rise of popular culture in Song cities.
Masks, Markets, and Child’s Play
Two developments highlight Nuo’s cultural integration:
1. The Guilin Mask Industry
– Southern China’s Guilin prefecture became famous for crafting exquisite Nuo masks
– Sets contained hundreds of unique designs (“not one face alike”), valued up to 10,000 coins
– As Lu You noted, artisans grew wealthy supplying masks nationwide
2. Children’s Adoption of Nuo
– Paintings like Hundred Children at Play show kids wearing miniature masks
– Poems describe youngsters chasing village Nuo troupes
– Markets sold mask toys, transforming ritual objects into playthings
This democratization stripped Nuo of its mystical aura, making it accessible street entertainment. As Zhu Xi observed, “Though Nuo is ancient ritual, it now resembles theater.”
Diverging Paths: Nuo’s Post-Song Legacy
After the Song, Nuo traditions split:
1. Ming Dynasty Revivalism
– Court ceremonies reintroduced terrifying Fangxiangshi figures
– Emphasized archaic elements over folk adaptations
2. Regional Folk Variants
– In rural areas, Nuo merged with local shamanism
– Developed strict taboos (e.g., women forbidden from touching masks)
– Evolved into ritual dramas like Nuoxi (Nuo opera)
This bifurcation mirrors global patterns—compare Halloween’s commercialized fun with preserved tribal exorcism rites. The Song experiment demonstrated how ancient traditions could thrive by embracing change, while rigid forms risked becoming cultural relics.
Conclusion: Nuo as a Mirror of Social Change
The journey from Zhou exorcisms to Song street performances reveals much about Chinese society’s adaptability. Where Han rituals expressed primal fears, Song reinterpretations celebrated communal joy—a shift paralleling Europe’s carnival traditions. Today, surviving Nuo forms (like Guizhou’s Dixi masked dances) preserve fragments of this living history, reminding us that even the most solemn traditions must evolve to endure.
As with the modern transformation of Yao people’s Pan Wang Festival—once a sacred ancestor worship, now a harvest celebration—Nuo’s story teaches us that cultural vitality lies not in rigid preservation, but in creative reinvention.