The Origins of Qin Dynasty Coinage

The monetary history of the Qin state began in 336 BCE during the second year of King Huiwen’s reign, as recorded in the Records of the Grand Historian. This marked the first issuance of official currency by the Qin state – the famous ban liang coins. These distinctive coins featured a circular shape with a square central hole, their value indicated by inscribed weight measurements.

Ancient texts provide precise specifications about these coins. The Shuowen Jiezi dictionary states “24 zhu make one liang,” while commentary in the Records of the Grand Historian quotes the Gujin Zhu noting the Qin ban liang coin measured 1.2 inches in diameter and weighed 12 zhu. Early numismatists believed these coins were introduced after Qin’s unification of China, assuming their size and weight strictly matched their inscribed values. However, archaeological discoveries have revealed a more complex reality.

Archaeological Evidence of Early Ban Liang Coins

Significant finds have demonstrated that ban liang coins circulated long before Qin’s unification. The 1980 excavation at Tomb 50 in Haojiaping, Qingchuan County, Sichuan yielded seven ban liang coins alongside wooden tablets dated to 309 BCE (the second year of King Wu’s reign). These coins show primitive casting techniques, with diameters ranging from 2.7 to 3.21 cm (six specimens exceeding 3 cm) and weights varying dramatically from 2 to 9.8 grams, though most fell between 3.9-6.7 grams.

The calligraphy on these early coins appears archaic, with the character strokes raised prominently. Notably, the lower horizontal stroke of “ban” (半) and upper stroke of “liang” (两) appear shortened. Even earlier examples may exist – the 1962 Shoupa Zhangbao hoard in Chang’an County, Shaanxi contained both round-holed and square-holed ban liang coins, with the former showing more primitive characteristics.

These discoveries across Shaanxi, Sichuan, and Hubei provinces confirm that ban liang coins circulated widely before Qin’s unification. After conquering the six states, Emperor Qin Shi Huang standardized weights and measures while unifying the monetary system.

The Development of Ban Liang Coins

### Early Unified Qin Period Ban Liang

Two significant archaeological finds represent typical ban liang coins from around the unification period. The 1978 excavation of Tomb 23 at Shuihudi, Yunmeng, Hubei (an early Qin burial) yielded two specimens:
– One measuring 3.11 cm diameter, 0.88 cm central hole, with inner/outer rims, weighing 6.5g
– Another at 3.21 cm diameter, 0.65 cm hole, outer rim only, weighing 6.8g

Both show precise casting with clear, elongated inscriptions where the two horizontal strokes of “ban” appear nearly equal in length. Similarly, nine coins discovered in 1976 along the Mengke River in Aohan Banner, Inner Mongolia range from 3.1-3.3 cm diameter and 10.2-12.3g weight, with comparable inscription styles.

Historical records date Qin’s conquest of Liaodong to 222 BCE and establishment of Liaodong Commandery to 221 BCE, suggesting these Inner Mongolian coins belong to this transitional period. The Yunmeng and Aohan finds, typically 3-3.2 cm diameter with standardized casting, are generally considered official issues from early unified Qin.

### Late Qin Dynasty Ban Liang

The most representative late Qin examples come from the mausoleum complex of Emperor Qin Shi Huang. Excavations have uncovered numerous specimens:
– Burial pits: multiple coins
– Zhengzhuang stone workshop: 2 coins
– Terracotta Army Pit 1: 1 coin
– Tomb 15 at Shangjiao Village: 1 coin
– Yuchi Village site: over 540 coins
– Zhaobeihu burial ground: 40 coins

Measurements show these late-period coins average about 2.7 cm diameter with irregular weights (mostly 2.2-3.8g based on Yuchi Village specimens), demonstrating a clear trend toward smaller, lighter coins in the dynasty’s final years.

Ban Liang Coin Molds

The evolution of casting technology can be traced through discovered coin molds:

### Warring States Period Molds
– Fengyang Dongshe Village, Shaanxi: Bronze shovel-shaped mold with 6 coin impressions (3.3-3.4 cm diameter), featuring crude inscriptions where “ban” resembles the character “八” and “liang” has an exceptionally short upper stroke. Considered the earliest known Warring States Qin ban liang mold.

### Qin Dynasty Molds
– Epang Palace site (1959): Bronze shovel-shaped mold with 3.1-3.2 cm diameter impressions matching early unified Qin coin styles, likely an official mold.
– Youwang Village, Lintong: The earliest discovered rectangular “direct-casting” bronze mold master with 14 impressions (2.7 cm diameter), resembling late Qin mausoleum coins.

Other significant finds include:
– 1980 Guichi County, Anhui: 2 bronze molds (possibly regional minting)
– 1980 Shuijiang Village, Gaoxian, Sichuan: 1 stone mold (possibly related to southwestern development)

The Qin Monetary System

Currency unification formed a crucial part of Qin’s post-unification economic policies. The Records of the Grand Historian documents that Qin standardized “laws, measurements, axle widths, and writing systems.” The Pingzhun Shu further specifies Qin established a two-tier monetary system:
– Gold measured by the yi unit as high-value currency
– Bronze ban liang coins as everyday currency, theoretically weighing twelve zhu as inscribed.

However, archaeological evidence shows significant variation – early ban liang coins typically exceeded 3 cm diameter while late Qin specimens shrank to about 2.7 cm with corresponding weight reductions.

Qin laws strictly regulated currency. The Jinbu Lü statutes from Yunmeng bamboo slips dictate precise protocols for storing and transporting coins in sealed containers. The Fengzhen Shi legal cases include examples prosecuting counterfeiters. Despite these measures, private minting proliferated, leading to mixed-quality coins circulating in markets – a situation Sima Qian described as “weights and values fluctuating unpredictably over time.”

Qin coins were notably heavy and valuable. Bamboo slips from 217 BCE record price equivalents:
– 1 dan of millet = 30 coins
– Standard cloth (8 x 2.5 chi) = 11 coins
– Prison uniforms ranged from 36-60 coins depending on materials

The Historical Significance of Qin Coinage

Qin’s monetary system established several enduring standards:
1. The circular-with-square-hole design became China’s standard coin shape for millennia
2. The weight-marking system (“ban liang” = half liang) continued with later wuzhu coins
3. The two-tier system (gold and bronze) established currency hierarchies
4. Strict state control over minting set important precedents, despite private minting issues

Han Dynasty Monetary Developments

The Han Dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE) witnessed crucial developments in Chinese monetary history. Based on dated tombs and coin molds, Han coinage can be categorized into:
– Ban liang variants (including 8-zhu and 4-zhu versions)
– 3-zhu coins
– Western Han wuzhu coins (three phases)
– Wang Mang’s currency reforms
– Eastern Han wuzhu coins (two phases)

Key monetary events include:
– 186 BCE: 8-zhu ban liang
– 175 BCE: 4-zhu ban liang (private minting permitted)
– 140 BCE: 3-zhu coins introduced
– 118 BCE: Commandery wuzhu coins
– 112 BCE: Centralized minting under Three Offices of Shanglin Park
– 40 CE: Wuzhu coins reinstated
– 186 CE: “Four-outflow” wuzhu coins

### Early Western Han Ban Liang

After establishing the Han Dynasty, the government initially continued Qin’s ban liang system. Notable finds include:
– 1977 Shuanggudui Tomb, Fuyang: 33 coins (1 large, 12 medium, 20 small) with distinctive inscription styles
– 1986 Xuzhou Beidongshan Chu King Tomb: Over 50,000 coins including early Han types
– 1963 Nanyang stone mold: 12 impressions (2.8 cm diameter)
These may represent the 8-zhu ban liang issued in 178 BCE.

The 1975 Jiangling Phoenix Hill Tomb 168 yielded 101 coins and a balance scale dated to 167 BCE. The scale’s inscription identifies it as a certified 4-zhu measuring device. The accompanying coins (mostly 2.3-2.5 cm diameter, 2.6-3.2g weight) likely represent Emperor Wen’s 4-zhu ban liang.

### Emperor Wu’s 3-zhu Coins

Specimens in Shandong museums and the 1973 Laiwu mint site discovery confirm these short-lived coins (140-136 BCE) measured 2.1-2.3 cm diameter and weighed 2-2.1g with square inscriptions.

### Western Han Wuzhu Coins

Introduced in 118 BCE, wuzhu coins became China’s longest-circulating currency, remaining standard for 739 years until the Tang Dynasty’s Kaiyuan Tongbao.

Based on dated tombs and molds, Western Han wuzhu coins developed through three phases:

1. 118-68 BCE: Early issues from regional mints and the Three Offices
2. 64-late 1st century BCE: Refined coins with parallel “wu” strokes
3. 34 BCE-7 CE: Broader characters with distinctive “wu” stroke curvature

The Three Offices of Shanglin Park became the exclusive minting authority in 113 BCE. Recent excavations at the Zhongguan mint site (100 hectare facility) have revealed extensive remains of ceramic and bronze molds.

### Wang Mang’s Currency Reforms

Between 7-14 CE, Wang Mang implemented four radical currency reforms producing various unusual denominations:
– 7 CE: Knife money (500-5000 value), daquan wushi (worth 50), and wuzhu
– 9 CE: Daquan wushi and xiaoqian zhiyi (1 value)
– 10 CE: Complex “Treasure Currency” system (28 denominations)
– 14 CE: Huoquan and huobu (25:1 ratio)

### Eastern Han Wuzhu

After Wang Mang’s chaotic reforms, Emperor Guangwu reinstated wuzhu coins in 40 CE. These maintained relatively stable standards until the “four-outflow” wuzhu of 186 CE (identifiable by four lines radiating from the reverse).

The Significance of Han Monetary Systems

1. Wuzhu coins established an enduring, practical standard
2. Monetary economy expanded dramatically – 280 billion coins minted by 1st century CE
3. Increasing centralization of minting authority
4. Experiments with multiple denominations facilitated commerce
5. Persistent issues with private minting and coin debasement

Qin and Han Measurement Systems

### Qin Standardization

The foundations of Qin’s measurement system trace to Shang Yang’s reforms (356 BCE). Key artifacts include:
– Shang Yang bronze sheng (344 BCE): 202 ml capacity standard
– Gaonu stone weight: 30 kg standard showing long-term consistency
– Yunmeng bamboo slips: strict measurement laws with heavy penalties for violations

The system maintained remarkable consistency from Warring States through Qin’s unification and collapse.

### Han Developments

Han inherited and refined Qin’s systems:
– Length: ~23.1 cm (Western Han), ~23.5 cm (Eastern Han)
– Capacity: ~200 ml maintained from Qin
– Weight: 248g (Western Han), 238g (Wang Mang), 220g (Eastern Han)

Wang Mang’s reforms produced precision instruments like the bronze jia liang (standardizing length, volume and weight) and bronze zhang measuring rod.

The Eastern Han saw important innovations like steelyard balances replacing equal-arm scales, and specialized measures for astronomical and market use.

Conclusion

The Qin and Han periods established China’s fundamental systems of currency and measurement that would endure for millennia. The ban liang and wuzhu coins set enduring standards for design and value representation, while the measurement systems demonstrated both remarkable consistency and gradual evolution. These developments supported China’s growing economic integration and administrative sophistication during the first imperial dynasties.