The Roots of Qin-Han Archaeology in Chinese Scholarly Traditions

Long before the emergence of modern archaeology, Chinese scholars had been documenting material remains from the Qin (221–206 BCE) and Han (206 BCE–220 CE) dynasties through two traditional disciplines: dili fangzhixue (geographical local records) and jinshixue (epigraphy and antiquarianism). Works like Commentary on the Water Classic by Northern Wei scholar Li Daoyuan and Atlas of Counties in the Yuanhe Era by Tang official Li Jifu preserved invaluable descriptions of ancient cities, tombs, and stone inscriptions.

During the Song to Qing periods, jinshixue matured, with scholars like Weng Fanggang compiling specialized catalogs of Qin-Han bronze inscriptions in his Records of Han Dynasty Metal and Stone Artifacts. However, these approaches—though meticulous—remained rooted in textual analysis rather than systematic excavation.

The Birth of Scientific Qin-Han Archaeology (Late 19th Century–1949)

Modern Qin-Han archaeology began in the early 20th century, heavily influenced by Western methodologies. Initial explorations, however, were often led by foreign expeditions with mixed legacies:

– Foreign Expeditions: Teams like Aurel Stein’s (1900–1901) uncovered Han-era wooden slips in Dunhuang, while Japanese archaeologists surveyed Liaodong’s Qin-Han sites. These efforts, though pioneering, sometimes prioritized artifact collection over preservation.
– Early Chinese Contributions: The 1927 Sino-Swedish Northwest Scientific Expedition marked a turning point, unearthing 10,200 Han slips at Juyan Fortress—a watershed for understanding Han frontier administration.

By the 1930s–40s, Chinese institutions took the lead. Key excavations included:
– Tombs: The 1934–35 Baoji Doujitai graves revealed burial customs of Qin-Han commoners.
– Epigraphy: Scholars like Luo Zhenyu cataloged Han stone reliefs, bridging antiquarianism and archaeology.

Formation and Early Development (1949–1965)

Post-1949, state-supported projects systematized Qin-Han archaeology. Two milestones exemplified this shift:

1. Urban Archaeology: The 1956–62 survey of Han Chang’an City mapped its grid layout, gates (e.g., Xuanping Gate), and ritual complexes like the Piyong Hall.
2. Typological Studies: The Han Tombs of Luoyang’s Shaogou (1959) established a chronology for central China’s burials using ceramic sequences and coin dating.

Other breakthroughs included:
– Industrial Sites: Excavations at iron-smelting facilities like Tieshenggou (1958–59) revealed Han metallurgical advances.
– Regional Diversity: From Guangdong’s Nanyue Kingdom tombs to Shandong’s engraved stone reliefs, studies highlighted local adaptations of Han material culture.

Interruption and Revival (1966–1978)

The Cultural Revolution stalled fieldwork, but landmark discoveries reignited interest:
– Mancheng Han Tombs (1968): The unspoiled tombs of King Liu Sheng and his consort yielded China’s earliest intact jade burial suits.
– Terracotta Army (1974): Farmers near Xi’an accidentally exposed the Qin Shi Huang Mausoleum’s underground regiments, reshaping perceptions of Qin militarism.

Simultaneously, texts like the Mawangdui Silk Manuscripts (1973) demonstrated archaeology’s potential to recover lost literature.

Expansion and Maturity (1979–2000)

Reform-era archaeology embraced interdisciplinary approaches:
– Imperial Capitals: Ongoing work at Xianyang and Chang’an clarified Qin-Han urban planning, such as the Daming Palace’s axial symmetry.
– Technological Studies: Metallurgical analysis of Han iron tools debunked earlier assumptions about technological stagnation.
– Cultural Exchange: Artifacts like Western Han lacquerware in Korean tombs illustrated Silk Road connections.

Synthesizing works emerged, such as Wang Zhongshu’s Han Dynasty Archaeology (1984), which integrated artifacts with historical narratives.

Current Frontiers (2001–Present)

Recent decades prioritize rescue archaeology and digital methodologies:
– Liye Qin Slips (2002): A well in Hunan preserved 37,000 administrative documents, revolutionizing knowledge of Qin bureaucracy.
– Multi-Spectral Imaging: Applied to manuscripts like the Yinwan Han Bamboo Texts, revealing faded characters.
– Public Archaeology: Sites like the Emperor Qinshihuang’s Mausoleum Site Museum attract millions, blending research with education.

Legacy and Ongoing Debates

Qin-Han archaeology’s contributions are profound:
– Historical Revisionism: Findings like Qin legal texts (Shuihudi) challenged traditional portrayals of Legalist tyranny.
– Cultural Identity: Han-era artifacts underscore China’s early unification while revealing regional diversity.

Yet challenges persist, such as balancing urbanization with site preservation—a tension epitomized by debates over the Daming Palace’s reconstruction.

As the field embraces DNA analysis, LiDAR surveys, and international collaborations, its future promises even deeper insights into China’s first imperial age.

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