The Twilight of an Empire

The year 1814 marked the dramatic collapse of Napoleon Bonaparte’s First French Empire. After the disastrous Russian campaign of 1812 and subsequent defeats, the Allied forces entered Paris on March 31, 1814. Facing dwindling support from his marshals and the reality of military defeat, Napoleon found himself at a crossroads at Fontainebleau Palace. As Metternich would later write in his memoirs, “In 1815, I completed my work because what followed was historically insignificant.”

The situation grew increasingly dire as Napoleon’s closest military commanders – Ney, Macdonald, Lefebvre, and Oudinot – made their reluctance to continue the fight abundantly clear. On April 5, the Allied powers informed Caulaincourt they would allow Napoleon to retain the title of Emperor while ruling the Mediterranean island of Elba off the Italian coast. This offer prompted Napoleon to draft a provisional act of abdication at Fontainebleau, telling his marshals: “You desire repose; well then, you shall have it.”

The Abdication Crisis

Napoleon’s abdication was initially limited to himself, preserving rights for his heir. He instructed Caulaincourt to keep this conditional nature secret until treaties guaranteeing his family’s safety and property were signed. However, news of the abdication leaked prematurely, triggering a mass exodus from the imperial court. As Joseph-Paulin d’Albon de Saint-André observed, “One would have thought the emperor was already in his grave.”

The speed of defections was staggering. By April 7, the official newspaper Le Moniteur lacked sufficient space to publish all the declarations of loyalty to Louis XVIII from former imperial officers including Jourdan, Augereau, Maison, Lagrange, Nansouty, Oudinot, Kellermann, Lefebvre, and others. Even Napoleon’s longtime chief of staff Berthier accepted a command in Louis XVIII’s royal guard.

The Loyalty of Soldiers and the Treaty of Fontainebleau

Despite the abandonment by his officers, Napoleon still commanded the fierce loyalty of France’s rank-and-file soldiers. On the evening of April 7, rumors of abdication sparked demonstrations among the 40,000 troops at Fontainebleau. Armed soldiers marched with torches, shouting “Long live the Emperor!” and “Down with the traitors!” Similar scenes erupted in Orleans, Lyon, Douai, Thionville, and Landau. In Clermont-Ferrand, troops publicly burned Bourbon white flags, while Lille saw a three-day mutiny where soldiers fired on their officers.

This display of popular Bonapartism alarmed British Foreign Secretary Lord Castlereagh, who warned: “Napoleon remaining at Fontainebleau with an army largely still devoted to him is a dangerous symptom.” After five days of negotiations, the Allies signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau on April 11, 1814, granting Napoleon sovereignty over Elba, an annual income of 2.5 million francs, and rights to imperial titles for his family.

The Failed Suicide and Farewell to the Old Guard

On the night of April 12-13, in a moment of profound despair, Napoleon attempted suicide using poison he had carried since nearly being captured by Cossacks at Maloyaroslavets. The outdated toxin caused agonizing pain but failed to kill him. His valet Hubert discovered him and summoned Dr. Yvan, who induced vomiting, possibly using fireplace ashes.

Recovered, Napoleon signed the final abdication documents on April 13 in what is now called the Abdication Room. When Marshal Macdonald came to collect the signed treaty, he found the Emperor “sitting by the fire, wearing a simple dimity dressing gown… his face yellow and livid.” Napoleon explained simply, “I was very ill last night,” before praising Macdonald’s loyalty when so many others had abandoned him.

The emotional climax came on April 20 at the Cour du Cheval Blanc (now Cour des Adieux). Before 600 Old Guard grenadiers who would accompany him to Elba, Napoleon delivered his famous farewell address:

“Soldiers of my Old Guard, I bid you farewell. For twenty years I have found you ever on the path of honor and glory… With you and the brave men who remain loyal, I could have carried on a civil war for three years, but France would have been unhappy. Be faithful to the new king whom France has chosen. Do not lament my fate; if I have chosen to live, it is to serve your glory. I wish to write the great things we have achieved together!”

After embracing General Petit and kissing an eagle standard for thirty seconds, Napoleon departed Fontainebleau in a carriage convoy, beginning his journey to exile.

The Journey to Exile

Napoleon’s 500-mile route to the southern coast took him through increasingly hostile royalist territory. At Orange, rocks were thrown through his carriage windows; in Avignon, crowds destroyed imperial eagles on his coaches and forced a servant to shout “Long live the King!” under threat of death. In Valence, Marshal Augereau – one of Napoleon’s original 1796 Italian campaign generals – berated him for wasting blood on personal ambition.

Captain Thomas Ussher of HMS Undaunted finally transported Napoleon from Fréjus on April 28. In a poignant symmetry, he departed from the same dock where he had landed after escaping Egypt fifteen years earlier. Royal Navy protocol waived sunset gun salutes, but Napoleon insisted on receiving honors due to a sovereign – 21 guns acknowledging his status under the Fontainebleau Treaty.

Emperor of Elba

On May 3, 1814, Napoleon arrived at Portoferraio, Elba’s main harbor. To his surprise, crowds greeted him with cries of “Long live the Emperor!” He quickly established residences at the Palazzina dei Mulini overlooking the port and the summer Villa San Martino, while throwing himself into governing his miniature kingdom with characteristic energy.

Despite limited resources – the Bourbons never paid his promised annuity – Napoleon implemented sweeping reforms on Elba:
– Organized island defenses against Barbary pirates
– Distributed funds to the poorest residents
– Constructed fountains, hospitals, and vineyards
– Paved roads in Portoferraio for the first time
– Established regular garbage collection
– Created an appeals court and road inspection corps
– Built a 1,100-volume library

He maintained a small court including Generals Bertrand, Drouot, and Cambronne, while receiving occasional visitors like his mother Letizia and sister Pauline. However, his wife Marie Louise and son never joined him, beginning an affair with Austrian General Adam von Neipperg instead.

The Gathering Storm in France

From Elba, Napoleon closely monitored France’s deteriorating political situation under Louis XVIII. The Bourbon restoration alienated key groups:
– Soldiers resented replacement of the tricolor with white royalist flags
– Veterans faced half-pay or dismissal
– Peasants feared restoration of feudal dues
– Workers suffered from British trade competition
– Property owners worried about returning émigrés

By August 1814, soldiers were openly celebrating Napoleon’s birthday with gun salutes. As economic conditions worsened and rumors spread that the Allies might move Napoleon to a more remote location like St. Helena, he began planning his return.

The Hundred Days Begin

On February 26, 1815, with British commissioner Neil Campbell absent in Florence, Napoleon seized his opportunity. With about 1,000 men (including the Old Guard battalion and Polish lancers) aboard the brig Inconstant and seven smaller vessels, he sailed for France. Landing at Golfe-Juan on March 1, he avoided royalist Provence and took the Alpine route toward Grenoble.

The legendary march unfolded:
– March 7: Reached Grenoble after the famous “meeting meadow” encounter where the 5th Line Infantry Regiment defected
– March 10: Entered Lyon as Louis XVIII’s brother fled
– March 14: Marshal Ney, who had promised to bring Napoleon back “in an iron cage,” instead joined him with 6,000 men
– March 20: Arrived at Paris after Louis XVIII fled to Belgium

Napoleon’s return from exile in just 20 days, without firing a shot, stands as one of history’s most remarkable political and military feats. As he later reflected: “From Cannes to Grenoble I was an adventurer; at Grenoble I became a prince again.” The Hundred Days had begun, setting the stage for the final act at Waterloo.

Legacy of the Elban Exile

Napoleon’s brief rule on Elba demonstrated his enduring administrative talents and ability to inspire loyalty. The episode also revealed key truths about post-imperial France:
– The fragility of Bourbon legitimacy
– The depth of Bonapartist sentiment in the army
– Napoleon’s unmatched personal connection with French soldiers
– The failure of the Vienna settlement to address popular aspirations

Though ultimately ending at Waterloo, Napoleon’s return from Elba became a powerful legend of resilience and political charisma. As Charles de Gaulle later observed: “He brought the most suffering to soldiers, yet they remained his most loyal followers.” The Route Napoléon through the Alps remains a lasting memorial to this extraordinary chapter in European history.