Prelude to a Fratricidal Struggle

The mid-17th century marked a turbulent period in the Mughal Empire, a sprawling dominion that stretched across the Indian subcontinent. Following a long and prosperous reign under Shah Jahan, the architect of the Taj Mahal, the question of succession loomed large. By 1657, the emperor’s health was failing, and his four sons—Dara Shikoh, Shah Shuja, Aurangzeb, and Murad Bakhsh—prepared to contest the throne. Dara, the eldest and Shah Jahan’s favored heir, was a scholar and syncretic thinker who embraced elements of Hindu and Sufi philosophy. His younger brother Aurangzeb, by contrast, was a austere military commander with a rigid interpretation of Sunni Islam. Their ideological and personal rivalry would soon erupt into open warfare, setting the stage for one of the most dramatic episodes in Mughal history.

The Gathering Storm

As Shah Jahan’s illness worsened, tensions among the princes escalated. Dara, as the designated successor, controlled the imperial capital Agra and enjoyed the support of the court and much of the nobility. Yet his brothers, governing distant provinces, amassed armies and forged alliances. By early 1658, the empire stood on the brink of civil war. Aurangzeb and Murad Bakhsh formed a pact, combining their forces to challenge Dara’s claim. The stage was set for a series of confrontations that would determine the future of the Mughal dynasty.

The Battle of Samugarh: A Day of Reckoning

On May 29, 1658, the armies of Dara Shikoh and the allied forces of Aurangzeb and Murad Bakhsh clashed at Samugarh, near Agra. The day began with palpable tension in the city. From noon onward, distant cannon fire echoed across the plains, signaling the start of a decisive engagement. Citizens and nobles alike waited anxiously, their fates hanging in the balance. Would Dara secure his throne and end the succession struggle? Or would their city face sack and slaughter at the hands of the victors? These questions tormented everyone, from commoners to courtiers.

By mid-afternoon, the first signs of trouble emerged. Fugitives from the battlefield began trickling into Agra, their disheveled appearance hinting at disaster. As daylight faded, public anxiety deepened. The absence of clear news only fueled speculation and dread. Then, at nine o’clock that night, a small group of riders on exhausted horses arrived in the unlit streets. They bypassed the Red Fort and headed straight for Dara’s residence in the city. These were the remnants of Dara’s retinue, and their arrival confirmed the worst fears.

Despair in the Palace

Inside the Red Fort, Emperor Shah Jahan and his daughter Jahanara received the news of Dara’s defeat with profound grief. The imperial harem echoed with lamentations as noblewomen wept for their fallen prince. Shah Jahan, though physically confined by illness and later by Aurangzeb’s imprisonment, remained emotionally invested in his eldest son’s fate. He sent a message through a eunuch, urging Dara to come to the fort: “You have reached this state only by the decree of fate. It is best that you come to see me now. Listen to my words, and you will go where destiny leads you. What is ordained for you will always accompany you.”

But Dara was broken—physically exhausted and spiritually crushed. The previous forty hours had included two days of marching under the scorching sun, a day of desperate combat, and a frantic retreat from the battlefield. He remembered how he had defied his father’s advice to avoid open conflict with Aurangzeb, and how he had thwarted Shah Jahan’s attempt to mediate among the brothers. Now, the worst had come to pass. He had departed Agra with the cry, “Victory or death!” and returned in disgrace. In a heartrending reply, he begged his father’s forgiveness and blessing, declaring himself too ashamed to appear before the emperor.

Flight from Agra

After a few hours of rest, Dara prepared to flee. His wife Nadira Banu, their children and grandchildren, and a few carefully selected female slaves boarded covered howdahs on elephants. He gathered what jewels, gold, and valuables he could carry and set out for Delhi at three in the morning, accompanied by only twelve servants and guards. Over the next two days, stragglers from his army joined him, swelling his group to around five thousand. Shah Jahan continued to send money and supplies, hoping to aid his son’s escape before Aurangzeb could seize Agra and block the route to Delhi.

Left behind in Agra, Dara’s abandoned servants, musicians, and female slaves sought refuge in the Red Fort with Shah Jahan. Meanwhile, his residence was looted, its furniture, elephants, and horses plundered by opportunists and rival factions.

Aurangzeb’s Triumph

On the battlefield at Samugarh, Aurangzeb celebrated his victory. After Dara’s flight, Aurangzeb dismounted from his war elephant, knelt, and thanked Allah. He performed two prostrations in gratitude for divine favor. Then he entered Dara’s lavish tent, seizing its riches and magnificent furnishings. Commanders gathered around him, receiving praise for their valor. Murad Bakhsh, his ally and brother, was greeted warmly. Aurangzeb credited Murad’s bravery for the victory and promised that his reign would begin from that day—a promise he would soon break. According to the chronicler Khafi Khan, Aurangzeb tenderly cared for Murad’s wounds, weeping as he wiped blood from his brother’s face.

That night, Aurangzeb rewarded his officers and allowed celebrations to continue in the tents. The sounds of revelry mixed with the somber glow of Hindu funeral pyres lighting the sky. After two days, the victorious prince marched toward Agra, encamping outside the city at Nur-Manazil, poised to claim his prize.

The Siege and Capture of Agra

Aurangzeb’s arrival at Agra marked the beginning of the end for Shah Jahan’s rule. The city, already reeling from Dara’s defeat, now faced the prospect of siege. Aurangzeb demanded the surrender of the Agra Fort and control of the imperial treasury. Shah Jahan, though heartbroken, initially resisted. But with Dara gone and Aurangzeb’s forces surrounding the city, resistance was futile. By June 1658, Aurangzeb had effectively taken control, confining his father to the fort and consolidating his power.

The capture of Agra was not just a military victory but a symbolic one. It represented the transfer of authority from the syncretic, inclusive vision of Dara and Shah Jahan to the orthodox, expansionist agenda of Aurangzeb. The city’s anxiety gave way to a grim acceptance of the new order.

Cultural and Social Impacts

The events of May–June 1658 had profound cultural and social repercussions. Dara Shikoh had been a patron of the arts, philosophy, and interfaith dialogue. His defeat and eventual execution marked a decline in the Mughal Empire’s tradition of cultural pluralism. Aurangzeb’s ascendancy ushered in an era of religious conservatism, with policies that often marginalized non-Muslims and curtailed artistic expression.

The looting of Dara’s residence and the panic in Agra also exposed the fragility of social order during succession crises. Loyalties shifted rapidly, and the populace faced uncertainty and violence. The flight of nobles and artists from Agra to other regions, such as the Deccan or Rajasthan, disseminated Mughal culture but also fragmented the imperial court’s cohesion.

Legacy and Modern Relevance

The struggle between Dara Shikoh and Aurangzeb remains a poignant chapter in South Asian history. Dara is often romanticized as a liberal intellectual whose victory might have altered the course of the region’s history, fostering greater harmony between religions. Aurangzeb, by contrast, is criticized for his intolerance, though some historians note his administrative acumen and military successes.

Modern debates about secularism, religious identity, and governance in India and Pakistan often invoke this period. The legacy of 1658 serves as a reminder of how leadership choices can shape societal values for centuries. The fall of Dara Shikoh underscores the tragic costs of fratricidal conflict and the enduring human themes of ambition, loyalty, and betrayal.

In Agra, the events of that summer left an indelible mark. The city, once the heart of a vibrant empire, gradually declined in political significance, though it retained its cultural allure. Today, the story of Dara’s defeat and Aurangzeb’s rise continues to captivate historians and readers alike, offering lessons about power, faith, and the unpredictable tides of history.