The Retreat from Xi’an: A Slow-Moving Catastrophe

In the thirteenth day of the first lunar month of 1645, Li Zicheng, leader of the Shun rebel forces, began his fateful retreat from Xi’an through Lantian and Shangluo into Henan province. Historical records from the Shangzhou Gazetteer note the sluggish pace: “Carrying families and supplies, they marched from the fifteenth to the end of the month.” Local county annals from Henan—such as those of Neixiang and Dengzhou—paint a grim picture of this withdrawal. The Dengzhou Gazetteer chillingly records the Shun army’s desperate measures: “They killed the elderly and weak, conscripted the strong, and left behind scorched earth—leveling cities, filling wells, and rendering the land barren from Wuguan Pass to Xiangyang and Hanzhong.”

This was no orderly retreat. Li’s forces, once the terror of the Ming dynasty, were now fleeing the relentless advance of the Manchu Qing. The Shun army’s slow progress, burdened by civilians and dwindling supplies, gave the pursuing Qing forces under Prince Ajige a lethal advantage.

The Qing Noose Tightens: Ajige’s Relentless Pursuit

Prince Ajige, initially tasked with crushing the Shun regime, had lost the race to capture Xi’an to his rival, Prince Dodo. Humiliated by the Qing court for his detour through Mongolia to requisition horses, Ajige now sought redemption through total annihilation of Li’s forces. Handing administrative duties in Shaanxi to Governor Meng Qiaofang, he launched a brutal chase.

From March to April 1645, Ajige’s forces engaged the Shun army in eight battles across Henan and Hubei—Dengzhou, Zhongxiang (modern-day Hubei), De’an, Wuchang, and beyond. These were not all major clashes, but they revealed the Shun army’s desperate trajectory: a southward flight with Qing cavalry snapping at their heels.

The Fatal Gamble: Abandoning the Jingxiang Base

By late March, Li regrouped 200,000 troops near Xiangyang, merging his retreating forces with the 70,000-strong garrison under General Bai Wang. This garrison had been Li’s strategic reserve, originally left to guard against Ming loyalist Zuo Liangyu. Now, Li gambled everything on a bold strike toward Nanjing, hoping to seize southern China before the Qing.

It was a catastrophic miscalculation. Bai Wang protested—the Jingxiang region (Xiangyang, Jingzhou, Zhongxiang, and De’an) was their last stable territory. Abandoning it meant fighting without a supply base. Li overruled him. The consequences were immediate: as the Shun army marched east, Qing forces effortlessly occupied the undefended cities. The Annals of Xiangyang tersely notes: “In March, Prince Ajige arrived; the rebel officials fled.”

The Death Spiral: Defeat at Wuchang and Beyond

By April, Li’s situation grew dire. His forces briefly occupied Wuchang after Ming general Zuo Liangyu abandoned it, but Ajige’s army soon surrounded the city. A failed counterattack led by generals Liu Zongmin and Tian Jianxiu forced another retreat. Now, the Shun army—encumbered by civilians and starving—descended into disarray.

The final blows came swiftly:
– Battle of Fuchikou: Qing forces ambushed Li’s camp at Yangxin, inflicting heavy losses.
– Disaster Near Jiujiang: In late April, the Qing overran Li’s headquarters. Liu Zongmin was captured and executed; strategist Song Xiance defected. Chancellor Niu Jinxing deserted, surrendering to the Qing.
– Strategic Collapse: With ships seized and Nanjing now under Qing threat from Dodo’s army, Li’s dream of a southern stronghold evaporated.

The End at Jiugong Mountain: A Peasant’s Revenge

In early May 1645, Li Zicheng—with just 20 guards—scouted Jiugong Mountain in Tongshan County. Local militia, unaware of his identity, ambushed the group. The Tongshan County Gazetteer records the aftermath: “On the fourth day of the fifth month, bandit forces stormed the county, slaughtering thousands in retribution.”

Li’s death was almost absurd in its randomness. A rebel who once threatened empires fell to farmers’ blades. His body was never recovered—likely secretly buried by loyalists to prevent desecration. The Qing, despite exhaustive searches, found only “rotted, unidentifiable remains” (Ajige’s report to the Shunzhi Emperor).

Legacy: From Rebellion to Myth

Li Zicheng’s death marked the Shun dynasty’s end, but his remnants fought on under Ming loyalist banners. The myth of his survival—including tales of him becoming a monk at Jia Shan Temple—persists, though primary sources confirm his fate at Jiugong Mountain.

Historically, Li’s downfall underscores a recurring lesson: without secure logistics and governance, even the most formidable rebel armies crumble. His rise and fall remain a cautionary epic of ambition, miscalculation, and the fleeting nature of power.