The Final Days of a Strategic Mind

The year 220 CE marked a turning point in Chinese history. After the execution of Guan Yu, tensions between the warlords Liu Bei, Sun Quan, and Cao Cao reached a boiling point. Sun Quan, seeking to deflect blame for Guan Yu’s death, sent the general’s severed head to Cao Cao—a macabre political gesture. But Cao Cao, ever the tactician, refused to accept responsibility. Instead, he arranged a lavish funeral for Guan Yu, distancing himself from the assassination.

Yet Cao Cao’s own time was running out.

A chilling omen reportedly foreshadowed his demise. During the construction of a new palace in Luoyang, workers unearthed a pear tree whose roots oozed a blood-like sap. Superstitious whispers spread, and Cao Cao, disturbed by the sight, fell gravely ill soon after. While this tale may be apocryphal, historical records suggest a more plausible cause: a lifetime of debilitating migraines, likely stemming from a cerebrovascular condition, finally claimed his life.

The Tragedy of Hua Tuo

Cao Cao’s death was, in part, self-inflicted. His chronic headaches had driven him to seek the expertise of Hua Tuo, a renowned physician of the era. Hua Tuo was a pioneer in anesthesia and surgical techniques, using a concoction called mafeisan to numb patients before operations. Initially, his treatments provided Cao Cao relief, but the physician grew disillusioned.

Confined to the warlord’s court, Hua Tuo resented his diminished status. Once a revered healer who traveled freely to aid the common people, he now served a tyrant prone to violent outbursts. Feigning a family emergency, Hua Tuo fled and refused to return, despite repeated summons. When Cao Cao discovered the deception, he imprisoned and executed the doctor in 208 CE—a decision he later regretted as his condition worsened.

On his deathbed in 220 CE, Cao Cao reportedly grumbled that Hua Tuo could have cured him but chose not to. His stubbornness cost him access to the finest medical mind of the age.

The End of the Han Dynasty

With Cao Cao’s passing, his son Cao Pi inherited the title of King of Wei. The Han Dynasty, already a puppet regime under Cao Cao’s control, was now on borrowed time.

Cao Pi wasted no time consolidating power. He implemented the Nine-Rank System, a bureaucratic reform that ostensibly judged officials by merit but in practice entrenched aristocratic privilege. This move secured the support of powerful clans, paving the way for his next step: usurping the throne.

In October 220 CE, Emperor Xian of Han—a figurehead with no real authority—was coerced into abdicating. Cao Pi staged a elaborate charade of refusing the throne three times before “reluctantly” accepting. The Han Dynasty, which had ruled China for four centuries, was formally extinguished.

The Plight of Emperor Xian

Emperor Xian’s reign was a tragedy of powerlessness. A capable ruler in another era, he was instead a pawn in the machinations of warlords. After the failed “Girdle Edict” plot to assassinate Cao Cao, the emperor lived under virtual house arrest. His humiliation peaked in 214 CE when Cao Cao fabricated charges against Empress Fu, forcing Xian to seal her death warrant. As soldiers dragged her away, the emperor could only lament, “I do not even know how long I myself will live.”

Yet Xian’s post-abdication life was surprisingly peaceful. Granted the title “Duke of Shanyang,” he devoted himself to medicine, treating commoners and earning local admiration. His wife, Cao Jie (Cao Pi’s sister), famously cursed her brother after hurling the imperial seal at his envoys. Ironically, Cao Pi died just six years later, while Xian outlived him by over a decade.

Liu Bei’s Costly Revenge

Meanwhile, Liu Bei—claiming to uphold the Han legacy—declared himself emperor in 221 CE after false rumors of Xian’s death. His next move defied logic: instead of attacking Cao Pi, he launched a massive campaign against Sun Quan to avenge Guan Yu.

The invasion was a disaster. Lacking his top strategists (Zhuge Liang was left behind, and Fa Zheng had died), Liu Bei’s forces were outmaneuvered by Sun Quan’s general Lu Xun. At the Battle of Xiaoting (222 CE), fire attacks decimated Shu’s camps, forcing Liu Bei into a humiliating retreat. The defeat shattered his hopes of restoring the Han.

Legacy of the Three Kingdoms

Cao Cao’s death and the Han’s collapse set the stage for the Three Kingdoms era. His complex legacy—part ruthless strategist, part literary patron—continues to fascinate. Was he a villain or a pragmatist? Emperor Xian’s quiet dignity in exile contrasts sharply with Liu Bei’s failed ambition, reminding us that history often judges not just by victories, but by the choices made in defeat.

The lessons endure: the dangers of unchecked power, the price of vengeance, and the fleeting nature of political glory. As China transitioned into a new age, these figures became immortalized—not just in history books, but in the collective memory of a culture still grappling with their legacies.