The Collapse of the Ming and the Shun Interregnum

The year 1644 marked one of the most dramatic turning points in Chinese history, when three different regimes vied for control of Beijing within a matter of months. The once-mighty Ming dynasty had crumbled under the weight of internal rebellions, economic collapse, and external threats. Into this power vacuum stepped Li Zicheng’s Shun army, a peasant rebellion that had grown into a formidable force capable of toppling dynasties.

Li’s forces entered Beijing on April 25, 1644, after the last Ming emperor Chongzhen hanged himself on Meishan hill behind the Forbidden City. The Shun occupation lasted barely forty days – a fleeting moment in historical terms, but one that would reshape China’s political landscape for centuries to come. During this brief period, the Shun regime implemented radical policies including the confiscation of wealth from Ming officials through a system called “assisting military funds through property confiscation,” which alienated the scholar-official class whose support was crucial for governing.

The Shun Retreat: A Calculated Withdrawal

By late May 1644, the situation in Beijing had become untenable for Li Zicheng. After suffering a crushing defeat at Shanhaiguan against the combined forces of Ming general Wu Sangui and the Manchu Qing armies, the Shun leadership faced difficult choices. Historical accounts reveal intense debates between April 27-28 about whether to defend the capital or retreat westward.

Several factors influenced their ultimate decision to abandon Beijing:

Military considerations made defense impractical – the Shun couldn’t muster sufficient forces to withstand a siege, and their defeated troops returning to the city had visibly shaken civilian morale. The population, witnessing the disorganized retreat, grew restless, with rumors spreading rapidly. Underground opposition elements waited for an opportunity to strike against the weakened regime.

Li Zicheng made the pragmatic choice to withdraw after a symbolic enthronement ceremony on April 29. The retreat was methodical – residents were advised to evacuate, and the Shun forces set fire to Ming palaces and city gates before departing. Notably, many civilians and even some former Ming officials like Gong Dingzi and Tu Bihong chose to follow the retreating Shun army westward, suggesting lingering loyalty to the peasant regime.

The Qing Entry and the Theater of Legitimacy

While the Shun forces retreated, the Qing armies under Prince Dorgon made strategic preparations. After brief rest at Shanhaiguan, they advanced toward Beijing in late April. On April 30, learning of the Shun withdrawal, Dorgon dispatched elite cavalry under Dodo, Ajige, and Wu Sangui to pursue Li’s forces and recover looted treasures.

Dorgon himself entered Beijing through Chaoyang Gate on May 2 to a scene of profound confusion. The city’s residents, unaware that Wu Sangui had allied with the Qing, mistakenly prepared imperial regalia to welcome what they believed would be the return of Ming Crown Prince Zhu Cilang. Their shock was palpable when the Manchu prince appeared instead. Some fled immediately, while pragmatic officials quickly adapted, welcoming Dorgon into the surviving Wuying Hall and submitting to Qing authority.

This moment reveals much about the fluid political perceptions of the time. The rapid succession of regimes left the population and officials struggling to discern legitimate authority. The Qing skillfully exploited this confusion to position themselves as restorers of order rather than foreign conquerors.

Military Pursuits and Strategic Withdrawals

The Qing pursuit of the Shun army continued aggressively. On May 8 at Qingdu (modern Wangdu County, Hebei), Qing forces engaged Shun troops led by Marquis Gu Ying, who died in the battle. Another engagement at Zhending (modern Zhengding County) forced the Shun army to retreat through Jingxing Pass into Shanxi province, where they established defensive positions at Guguan Pass. By May 12, the Qing forces had returned to Beijing, having secured the capital region.

These military maneuvers demonstrated the Qing’s tactical superiority and the Shun’s inability to regroup after their initial defeat. The battles also marked the beginning of a pattern that would characterize the next decade – the Qing methodically eliminating rival claimants to power while the Shun remnants gradually disintegrated.

The Scholar-Official Dilemma: Choosing Allegiance in Turbulent Times

Beijing’s repeated changes of hands created agonizing choices for the Ming scholar-official class. Most had submitted to the Shun regime when it first took power, only to face another transition when the Qing arrived. This produced waves of migration, as recorded by Yang Shicong: “Over a hundred officials and gentry have come south with me.” Many risked dangerous journeys, with reports of seventy ships lost at sea carrying fleeing officials.

The Qing implemented remarkably effective policies to win over this crucial class. Unlike the Shun’s confiscatory policies or the Southern Ming’s later persecution of those who had served the “rebel bandits,” the Qing offered pragmatic reconciliation. Dorgon’s administration declared on June 8, 1644: “All civil and military officials and common people, whether originally part of the rebel bandits or forced to surrender to them, if they submit to our dynasty, will still be allowed employment.”

This inclusive approach yielded significant results. Former Ming officials who had collaborated with the Shun, like Chen Mingxia, found themselves welcomed by the Qing after being rejected by the Southern Ming. Even controversial figures like Feng Quan, who had been purged during the Ming for association with the hated eunuch Wei Zhongxian, received high positions in the new government. The Qing pragmatically evaluated officials based on capability rather than past affiliations, even honoring appointments made by the Shun regime when determining rank.

Economic and Social Policies: Stabilizing a Fractured Empire

Beyond political appointments, the Qing implemented economic measures to consolidate control. They ordered the return of property confiscated by peasant rebels to original owners, including former Ming nobility. Tax policies reverted to the lighter Wanli-era (1573-1620) standards, abolishing the hated late-Ming surcharges that had fueled popular discontent.

Significant social reforms included abolishing the hereditary artisan and military household systems that had bound families to specific occupations for generations. A May 1645 edict declared: “Exempt artisans in Zhangqiu and Jiyang counties in Shandong from corvée service. All provinces should remove artisan registration and make them commoners.” While immediate implementation was uneven due to ongoing military demands, these policies laid groundwork for long-term stability.

The Haircutting Controversy: Cultural Conflict and Pragmatic Retreat

One of the most sensitive issues was the Qing imposition of Manchu hairstyles, requiring the shaving of foreheads and braiding of hair into queues. Initial orders in May 1644 provoked such widespread resistance that the Qing temporarily retreated. A May 24 decree stated: “I previously ordered haircutting to distinguish those who submitted. Now I hear this greatly displeases the people, contrary to my original intention of civil governance. Henceforth, all subjects may keep their hair as before.”

This temporary concession demonstrated the Qing leadership’s political acumen – recognizing when cultural impositions might undermine broader strategic goals. The hairstyle order would be reinstated more successfully in 1645 after Qing power was more firmly established.

Legacy of the 1644 Transition

The events of April-May 1644 established patterns that would characterize the entire Qing conquest period. The dynasty’s success stemmed from several key factors:

Their ability to present themselves as avengers of the Ming rather than foreign conquerors; pragmatic policies toward the scholar-gentry class that contrasted favorably with both the Shun’s radicalism and Southern Ming’s vindictiveness; and flexible cultural policies that balanced Manchu identity with Han sensibilities.

As noted by contemporary Zhu Hui: “In May and June last year, people’s hearts were unsettled, many avoided service, government offices stood empty… But after the Prince Regent’s benevolent intentions spread near and far, and after the sacred ruler ascended the throne, responses came from east and west, scholars gathered like clouds, achieving today’s situation – was this easy?”

The Qing transition in Beijing became a model for their subsequent expansion across China – combining military might with political flexibility to transform a regional power into China’s last imperial dynasty. The decisions made in those crucial weeks of 1644 would shape China’s trajectory for the next 267 years.