The Collapse of the Ming and the Rise of the Shun

By April 1644, the Ming Dynasty was in its death throes. Peasant rebellions, economic collapse, and Manchu incursions had weakened the empire beyond recovery. Li Zicheng, leader of the Shun rebellion, had captured Beijing, prompting the last Ming emperor, Chongzhen, to hang himself in despair. For a brief moment, it seemed Li Zicheng’s Shun Dynasty might replace the Ming as China’s new ruling power.

Yet Li’s triumph was short-lived. The Ming general Wu Sangui, guarding the Shanhai Pass, defected to the Manchus, allowing the Qing forces under Prince Dorgon to march south. The decisive Battle of Shanhai Pass on April 27 shattered Li’s army, forcing him into a desperate retreat. By April 26, he was back in Beijing, facing an impossible choice: defend the capital or abandon it before the Qing closed in.

The Fateful Decision to Abandon Beijing

Initially, Li Zicheng considered holding Beijing. He ordered the demolition of civilian houses and defensive structures outside the city walls, suggesting preparations for a siege. But within two days, he changed course. Recognizing the futility of resistance—his scattered forces could not withstand the combined might of the Qing and Wu Sangui’s turncoat army—he made the painful but pragmatic decision to withdraw.

Before leaving, however, Li took a crucial symbolic step: on April 29, he held a hasty coronation ceremony in the Wu Ying Hall, declaring himself emperor. This was no mere vanity—it was a political statement. By formally ascending the throne in Beijing, he asserted the Shun Dynasty’s legitimacy as the rightful successor to the Ming, even if military necessity forced him to retreat.

That same day, he ordered Beijing’s residents to evacuate. As flames consumed the Ming palaces and city gates, thousands fled westward with Li’s army. Remarkably, despite his recent defeat, many former Ming officials and commoners still chose to follow him—a testament to the Shun regime’s lingering authority.

The Qing Entry and the Betrayal of Beijing’s Elites

On April 30, Qing scouts reported Li’s retreat. Dorgon dispatched elite cavalry in pursuit while he marched toward Beijing. By May 2, the Qing entered the capital under a deceptive banner: they claimed to be avenging the Ming. Many Beijing elites, unaware of Wu Sangui’s defection, eagerly awaited the return of the Ming crown prince. Instead, they were met with the sight of Manchu warriors and their distinctive queues.

Shock turned to opportunism. Ming officials, desperate to retain power, quickly switched allegiance. Dorgon, installed in the fire-scarred Wu Ying Hall, offered amnesty to former Ming bureaucrats and promised to restore confiscated lands to their original owners. The city’s elite, relieved to escape peasant justice, welcomed Qing rule as a “timely rain after drought.”

The Shun’s Disastrous Retreat

Meanwhile, Li Zicheng’s retreat turned into a nightmare. His exhausted troops, low on supplies, maintained discipline—paying peasants for food rather than looting. Yet the Qing cavalry, relentless in pursuit, caught up at Qingdu (modern Wangdu County). In a desperate rearguard action, Shun commander Gu Ying was killed. Another defeat at Zhending forced Li into Shanxi, where he fortified the Gu Pass.

The Qing, though victorious, were stretched thin. By May 12, they halted their chase, consolidating control over Beijing and the surrounding regions. Li’s dream of a peasant dynasty was over.

The Qing’s Cunning Consolidation

Dorgon’s political maneuvering proved as effective as his military strategy. He declared three days of mourning for the dead Ming emperor, winning over Confucian scholars. Former Ming officials were reinstated, and land reforms favored the gentry. This calculated leniency secured Qing dominance, transforming Beijing’s elite from Ming loyalists into Qing collaborators overnight.

Legacy: The End of Peasant Rule and the Qing Ascendancy

Li Zicheng’s retreat marked the end of China’s last major peasant-led dynasty. His failure underscored the challenges of transitioning from rebellion to governance. The Qing, by contrast, mastered the art of co-opting existing power structures, ensuring their rule would last for centuries.

For modern historians, this episode reveals a recurring theme: revolutions often falter not in the streets, but in the halls of power. Li’s brief reign—and his desperate coronation—remains a poignant reminder of how quickly fortunes can change in the turbulent tides of history.