The Collapse of Fengyang and the Emperor’s Fury

In 1635, the peasant rebel armies achieved a stunning victory by capturing Fengyang, the ancestral home of the Ming imperial family. This defeat sent shockwaves through the Ming court, provoking Emperor Chongzhen (Zhu Youjian) into a frenzy of retribution. The Fengyang governor, Yang Yipeng, was swiftly executed, while Wu Zhenying, the regional inspector, was exiled. The eunuch overseeing the imperial tombs, Yang Ze, chose suicide over facing punishment.

Chongzhen, desperate to restore imperial prestige, intensified his crackdown on the rebels. He mobilized forces under the command of Hong Chengchou, the governor of Shaanxi, ordering a joint suppression campaign across central China. The Ming court assembled 70,000 troops and allocated over a million taels of silver for military expenses, setting an ambitious six-month deadline to crush the rebellion.

The Rebel Strategy: Retreat and Regroup in Shaanxi

Facing the advancing Ming forces, the rebel armies made a tactical withdrawal from Henan back into Shaanxi. The province, already devastated by famine and economic collapse, became fertile ground for recruitment. Desperate peasants, with nothing left to lose, flocked to the rebel banners in staggering numbers—soon swelling their ranks to over two million.

By April 1635, Hong Chengchou’s forces had barely reached Henan’s Ruzhou when they received reports of the rebels’ mass return to Shaanxi. Forced to redirect his campaign, Hong ordered his generals—including the notorious Cao Wenzhao—to block rebel movements between Shaanxi, Henan, and Huguang.

Decisive Battles and the Death of a Ming Warlord

In June 1635, Li Zicheng’s forces ambushed Ming troops in Ningzhou, killing the deputy commanders Ai Wannian and Liu Guozhen while inflicting heavy casualties. The news enraged Cao Wenzhao, a ruthless Ming general infamous for his brutality against civilians. Against Hong Chengchou’s cautious advice, Cao led 3,000 men into a reckless pursuit—only to be lured into a trap at Zhenning County. Surrounded by tens of thousands of rebel cavalry, Cao committed suicide rather than face capture.

His death was a devastating blow to Ming morale. Known as the “Butcher of Peasants,” Cao had been a symbol of the regime’s iron-fisted repression. His defeat shattered the myth of Ming invincibility, emboldening rebels across the region.

The Eastern Offensive and Ming Countermeasures

By late 1635, rebel forces under Gao Yingxiang (the “Dashing King”) and Zhang Xianzhong surged eastward into Henan and Anhui, threatening the Ming’s southern capital, Nanjing. Their armies stretched for miles, with cavalry screening vulnerable civilians at the center. Ming generals, outnumbered and demoralized, dared not engage them directly.

Recognizing Hong Chengchou’s inability to contain the crisis, Emperor Chongzhen appointed Lu Xiangsheng as Supreme Commander of Five Provinces, tasking him with coordinating defenses in the east. The division of responsibilities—Hong in the northwest, Lu in the southeast—highlighted the rebellion’s unprecedented scale.

The Stalemate and Shifting Fortunes

From late 1638 to mid-1639, the war entered a grueling stalemate. Gao Yingxiang’s forces rampaged through Henan and Anhui, while Li Zicheng kept Hong Chengchou’s troops pinned down in Shaanxi. Lu Xiangsheng’s reports reveal the rebels’ staggering numbers: Gao’s army alone numbered 70,000, including 30,000 cavalry. Despite heavy losses, they remained a formidable threat.

Meanwhile, Li Zicheng’s campaigns in Shaanxi saw both triumphs and setbacks. A failed attempt to cross the frozen Yellow River into Shanxi forced a retreat, but victories at Ansai and Suide kept Ming forces off-balance. However, a disastrous flood in Wuding River nearly wiped out Li’s army, leaving him with only a few hundred survivors—until reinforcements under Gao Yigong revived his campaign.

The Symbolic Return to Mizhi

Li Zicheng’s capture of Mizhi, his hometown, in 1639 became a powerful propaganda victory. Locals, including his relatives, joined the rebellion en masse, underscoring the Ming’s eroding legitimacy. This personal connection galvanized support, transforming Li from a regional leader into a symbol of popular resistance.

Legacy: The Ming’s Fatal Overextension

The Fengyang uprising and its aftermath exposed the Ming Dynasty’s fatal weaknesses: bureaucratic infighting, military overextension, and a failure to address peasant grievances. Despite overwhelming resources, the court’s reliance on brutal suppression only fueled rebellion. Within a decade, Li Zicheng would sack Beijing, and the Ming would collapse—proving that no empire can survive without the loyalty of its people.

The revolt’s lessons resonate even today: when governance fails, even the mightiest dynasties can fall to the fury of the dispossessed.