The Fragile Alliances of a New Empire

The early Han Dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE) was a period of fragile unity, where former rebel leaders turned loyalists found themselves navigating treacherous political waters. Three key figures—Han Xin, Peng Yue, and Ying Bu—rose to prominence as military leaders who helped Liu Bang (Emperor Gaozu) overthrow the Qin Dynasty and defeat his rival Xiang Yu. Yet, within a decade of the Han’s founding, all three met brutal ends, victims of imperial paranoia and the dangerous transition from warlordism to centralized rule.

These men were not traditional loyalists but opportunistic commanders who joined Liu Bang late in the Chu-Han Contention (206–202 BCE). Their independent power bases made them indispensable during the war but suspect in peacetime. Their downfalls in 196 BCE—Han Xin in spring, Peng Yue in summer, Ying Bu in autumn—reveal a systematic purge of potential rivals, orchestrated through a mix of fabricated charges and genuine rebellions.

The Doomed Loyalty of Han Xin

Han Xin, the brilliant strategist who secured Liu Bang’s victory at Gaixia (202 BCE), was the first to fall. Elevated to Prince of Chu, his autonomy and popularity made him a threat. In 196 BCE, he was accused of conspiring with the rebel Chen Xi—a charge likely engineered by Empress Lü. Stripped of titles, he was demoted to Marquess of Huaiyin before being executed in a brutal manner: wrapped in a mat and beaten to death by palace guards.

His death sent shockwaves through the nobility. As Sima Qian recorded in Records of the Grand Historian, Han Xin’s last words—”I regret not listening to Kuai Tong’s advice to declare independence”—underscored the tragic irony: his hesitation to betray Liu Bang sealed his fate.

Peng Yue: The Reluctant Rebel

Peng Yue’s downfall followed a chillingly similar script. The former bandit king turned Prince of Liang had earned Liu Bang’s ire by sending only token forces during the Chen Xi rebellion. When summoned to the capital in 196 BCE, Peng Yue’s advisors warned against attending, citing Han Xin’s fate. Though Peng Yue avoided open rebellion, a fleeing servant denounced him for treason—a mirror of Han Xin’s betrayal by a condemned man’s brother.

Liu Bang initially showed mercy, exiling Peng Yue to Sichuan. But in a twist of cruel irony, Peng Yue encountered Empress Lü en route. Feigning sympathy, she brought him back to Luoyang, where she convinced Liu Bang to execute him. Peng Yue’s body was dismembered, his flesh pickled, and his remains displayed as a warning—a grisly detail highlighting the regime’s ruthlessness.

Ying Bu’s Desperate Revolt

By autumn 196 BCE, Ying Bu (also called Qing Bu), the Prince of Huainan, saw the writing on the wall. When accused of rebellion by a fleeing official (amid rumors of an affair with his concubine), he chose open revolt, declaring, “I wish to be emperor!” His forces initially succeeded, killing Liu Bang’s cousin Liu Jia, Prince of Jing. But at the decisive Battle of Qiutou, Liu Bang himself led the counterattack. Though wounded by an arrow (a injury that would later contribute to his death), the emperor crushed Ying Bu’s forces.

The rebel’s flight to his brother-in-law, King Wu Chen of Changsha, proved fatal. Wu Chen, fearing imperial retribution, orchestrated Ying Bu’s ambush and murder in Poyang—a betrayal that secured his own survival but underscored the era’s brutal calculus of power.

Cultural Shockwaves and the Mandate of Heaven

These executions reshaped Han political culture. The fengjian system (semi-independent principalities) gave way to centralized rule, with Liu Bang replacing功臣 (meritorious vassals) with his relatives—11 of 13 principalities were held by Liu clan members by 195 BCE.

The killings also sparked debates about legitimacy. While official histories framed the victims as traitors, folk traditions preserved their tragic appeal. Han Xin became a symbol of unappreciated genius in Chinese opera, while Peng Yue’s dismemberment fueled tales of imperial cruelty. Ying Bu’s defiance, meanwhile, was romanticized in Romance of the Western Han, where his final stand echoes Xiang Yu’s heroism.

Archaeological Echoes: The Mawangdui Connection

Modern archaeology adds a haunting coda. The 1972 discovery of Lady Dai’s impeccably preserved tomb at Mawangdui revealed her as the wife of Li Cang—the very official who engineered Ying Bu’s murder. The tomb’s artifacts, including a T-shaped funeral banner depicting her ascent to heaven, stand in stark contrast to the violent ends of Han Xin, Peng Yue, and Ying Bu. This juxtaposition encapsulates the era’s duality: cultural sophistication alongside political brutality.

Lessons for Power Transitions

The 196 BCE purges offer timeless insights into post-revolutionary politics:
1. The Peril of Intermediate Powers: Warlords who straddle independence and loyalty become threats in centralized regimes.
2. The Myth of Shared Struggle: Comradeship in revolution rarely guarantees security in governance.
3. Gender and Power: Empress Lü’s role highlights how royal consorts often drove purges to secure dynastic succession.

As the Han Dynasty stabilized, these events were recast as necessary sacrifices—a narrative that still influences China’s view of state-building today. The tragedies of Han Xin, Peng Yue, and Ying Bu remind us that the transition from rebellion to rule is often bloodier than the revolution itself.