The Turbulent Backdrop of China’s Three Kingdoms Era

The year 214 AD marked a pivotal moment in China’s fractured landscape. While Liu Bei solidified his control over Yi Province (modern Sichuan), his rival Cao Cao—the de facto ruler of northern China—orchestrated a series of political and military maneuvers that would reshape the era’s balance of power. Emperor Xian, the Han dynasty’s powerless figurehead, elevated Cao Cao’s status above feudal kings, granting him gold seals and imperial regalia—a clear signal of his unchallenged authority.

This period saw relentless conflict: Cao Cao launched campaigns against Sun Quan in July, while the imperial court witnessed brutal purges—Empress Fu’s execution in November for allegedly conspiring against Cao Cao. By December, Emperor Xian authorized Cao Cao to adopt imperial ceremonial standards, foreshadowing the warlord’s eventual usurpation of Han legitimacy.

The Strategic Prize: Han Zhong’s Geopolitical Significance

Nestled between the rugged Qinling Mountains and the Sichuan Basin, Han Zhong (modern Hanzhong, Shaanxi) was more than just territory—it was the vital corridor linking the Central Plains to the fertile Shu lands. Its 100,000 registered households (an enormous population for the era) made it richer than the war-torn Guanzhong region and Liang Province combined.

Zhang Lu, the region’s theocratic ruler since 191 AD, had created a unique “Taoist utopia.” His government blended spiritual and civil administration:
– “Ghost Soldiers” (低级教徒) and “Jijiu” priests replaced traditional bureaucrats
– Three-strike forgiveness system for minor crimes, with road-building as penance
– Free “righteous inns” offering food to travelers with anti-waste warnings
– Seasonal bans on slaughter and alcohol consumption

This experiment produced rare population growth during the warlord era, attracting refugees like the 10,000 households fleeing Ma Chao’s defeated forces in 211 AD.

Cao Cao’s Northern Consolidation: The Liang Province Campaign

Before turning south, Cao Cao needed to secure his rear. General Xiahou Yuan spent 213-214 AD crushing Liang Province’s warlords:
– October 214: The “River’s Head King” Song Jian fell at Fuhan
– December 214: Ma Chao fled to Zhang Lu after losing his Qiang cavalry allies
– Early 215: The 75-year-old rebel Han Sui died after Xiahou Yuan’s brilliant “attack the homeland” strategy against his Qiang troops

These victories eliminated three decades of northwestern instability, allowing Cao Cao to focus on Han Zhong without fearing cavalry raids from the Silk Road.

The Bizarre Battle of Yangping Pass

In March 215 AD, Cao Cao’s combined force—including hardened Liang Province veterans—marched south via Chencang Road. The campaign nearly failed spectacularly:
1. Initial Disaster: Local guides claimed Yangping Pass was indefensible, but Cao Cao found impregnable mountain forts. After three days of bloody failures, he ordered retreat.
2. Divine Intervention: During withdrawal, thousands of wild deer stampeded through Zhang Lu’s brother Zhang Wei’s camp at night. Cao Cao’s rearguard, led by strategist Liu Ye, exploited the chaos with war drums, triggering a panicked surrender.
3. Theological Aftermath: The deer incident reinforced Cao Cao’s reputation for “mountain divinity” favor—a stark contrast to his aquatic misfortunes at Red Cliffs and Tong Pass.

Zhang Lu’s Calculated Surrender

Rather than fight to the death, the Taoist leader staged a strategic withdrawal to Ba County, deliberately preserving imperial warehouses. His advisor Yan Pu’s counsel proved masterful:
– “Forced surrender devalues your worth” → Flee first to negotiate from strength
– “Treasures belong to the state” → Demonstrated loyalty by safeguarding supplies

The gambit worked. Cao Cao granted Zhang Lu unprecedented honors:
– Title: General Who Guards the South, Marquis of Langzhong
– Fief: 10,000 households
– All five sons ennobled

The Controversial Han Zhong Exodus

Cao Cao’s subsequent population transfers sparked lasting resentment:
1. Northbound Migrants:
– 80,000+ Taoist devotees relocated to Luoyang/Ye
– Former Guanzhong refugees forced back north
2. Demographic Consequences:
– Migrant deaths during forced marches
– Cultural clashes in recipient cities
3. Strategic Misstep: The removals revealed Cao Cao’s lack of interest in invading Shu—he prioritized securing Han Zhong as a buffer rather than a springboard.

The Road Not Taken: Why Cao Cao Spared Shu

Historians debate Cao Cao’s refusal to pursue Liu Bei in late 215 AD. Key factors emerge:
1. Institutional Priorities:
– May 216: Emperor Xian enfeoffed Cao Cao as King of Wei
– October 216: Finalized imperial rituals and succession (Cao Pi as heir)
2. Aging Warlord’s Calculus:
– Fear of dying in Shu’s treacherous terrain
– Liu Bei’s two-year slog against Liu璋 demonstrated Shu’s defensibility
3. Sun Quan’s Threat: Continuous southern campaigns demanded attention

Legacy of the Han Zhong Campaign

1. Religious Impact:
– Zhang Lu’s relocated followers spread the “Five Pecks of Rice” sect, influencing later Taoist schools
2. Military Consequences:
– 219 AD: Liu Bei seized Han Zhong after Xiahou Yuan’s death at Mount Dingjun
– Proved Cao Cao’s migration policy weakened frontier defense
3. Historiographical Debate:
– Traditional criticism of “getting Long but forgetting Shu” (得陇忘蜀)
– Modern reassessments acknowledging Cao Cao’s succession concerns

The 215 AD campaign exemplifies the Three Kingdoms’ brutal pragmatism—where divine deer herds, theocratic socialism, and demographic engineering all shaped China’s destiny. Cao Cao’s choice to consolidate power rather than chase complete victory created the tripartite balance that would define the coming decades.