The Fragile Southern Ming Court

When news of Yangzhou’s fall and Shi Kefa’s martyrdom reached Nanjing, the Hongguang court descended into panic. Emperor Zhu Yousong and his advisors initially clung to hope that the Yangtze River’s natural defenses would protect them. This optimism proved tragically misguided as the Qing forces advanced relentlessly toward the Ming southern capital.

The Southern Ming regime had been established in 1644 after the fall of Beijing to rebel forces. As the secondary capital under the Ming dynasty’s two-capital system, Nanjing housed parallel government structures but held real power in only three key positions: the Minister of War, the military commander, and the supervising eunuch. The other officials and nobility maintained largely ceremonial roles, a fact that would prove disastrous during the crisis.

The Qing Crossing of the Yangtze

On the fifth day of the fifth month (May 29, 1645), Qing forces reached the northern bank of the Yangtze. Four days later, under the command of Duoduo, Qing officers led surrendered Ming generals Zhang Tianlu and Yang Chengzu in a dawn crossing fifteen miles west of Guazhou. Their fleet of over a hundred vessels defeated Ming naval commander Zheng Hongkui’s defenses near Jinshan and successfully established a beachhead on the southern bank.

The speed and success of this crossing shattered the last illusions of Nanjing’s defenders. By the tenth day (June 3), Emperor Hongguang, after consulting only with his chief minister Ma Shiying and a few eunuchs, fled the city secretly before dawn without informing other officials or making any defensive arrangements.

Chaos in the Capital

As news of the emperor’s flight spread through Nanjing at daybreak, panic erupted. Some citizens freed a youth claiming to be the Chongzhen Emperor’s heir from prison and proclaimed him emperor, still using the Chongzhen era name. However, the city’s military commander Zhao Zhilong and other nobles had already decided to surrender.

Historical accounts describe how on the fourteenth (June 7), dozens of Qing cavalry approached the city gates. Zhao Zhilong and other nobles lowered themselves from the walls on ropes to negotiate surrender terms. The next day, when Duoduo arrived with the main Qing force, over thirty high-ranking Ming officials including Duke Xu of Wei, Marquis Zhang Gongri, Grand Secretaries Wang Duo and Cai Yichen, Minister of Rites Qian Qianyi, and Censor-in-Chief Li Zhan opened the city gates to welcome the invaders.

The Qing Occupation

The Qing forces entered Nanjing cautiously, first securing the city before Duoduo made his formal entrance on the seventeenth (June 10). The conquerors then forcibly relocated all Han Chinese residents from the eastern and northern districts to make room for Qing troops and their families.

Zhao Zhilong, the military commander who had spearheaded the surrender, immediately dispersed the crowds supporting the pseudo-prince and posted proclamations announcing the city’s submission to Qing rule. His actions contrasted sharply with those of eunuch Han Zanzhou, who chose suicide over surrender.

The Tragedy of Collaboration

The fall of Nanjing revealed the moral collapse of the Ming elite. As chronicler Zhang Yi noted: “When the Qing troops entered the city, officials competed to submit their resumes seeking employment under the new regime. Those who had previously condemned northern officials for surrendering now found their knees weak as cotton and their faces thick as iron, without any self-awareness.”

Yet the motivations behind collaboration varied. Qian Qianyi, the celebrated scholar and Minister of Rites who surrendered, reportedly advised others to “quickly go to Zhejiang to select a ruler to support, in order to plan restoration.” His subsequent actions—including secret communications with Ming loyalists and later involvement in anti-Qing activities—complicate any simple judgment of his character.

The End of an Era

Nanjing’s capture marked the effective end of the Hongguang regime, barely a year after its establishment. The city that had served as the Ming dynasty’s founding capital and secondary seat of government for nearly three centuries fell with stunning rapidity. Poet Zhou Zairun captured the melancholy of this moment in his “View From the City Walls at Dusk”:

“Strolling at leisure through autumn fields of grain,
Waves rise on Xuanwu Lake—the dragon’s lair
And tiger’s perch now gone with the wind.
The river flows unknowing of our sorrow,
While the cold moon that once saw surrender banners
At Stone City shines on, indifferent.”

Historical Reflections

The period from 1644 to 1645 witnessed an extraordinary transformation of loyalties among Ming officials. As Zhang Yi observed, most resembled “weeds bending with the wind.” This moral collapse stemmed from decades of institutional decay, yet individual responses varied widely—from heroic resistance to shameless opportunism.

The Qing conquest of Nanjing also revealed the hollowness of Ming aristocratic power. The descendants of founding heroes like Xu Da (Duke of Wei) had become mere ceremonial figures, while real authority rested with military professionals and eunuchs. When crisis came, the nobility proved utterly unprepared to defend the dynasty their ancestors had helped establish.

Legacy and Lessons

The fall of Nanjing stands as a pivotal moment in China’s transition from Ming to Qing rule. It demonstrated both the organizational strength of the Qing military machine and the institutional weaknesses that had eroded Ming governance. The event also raises enduring questions about loyalty, collaboration, and resistance during periods of regime change—themes that would recur throughout Chinese history.

Perhaps most tragically, Nanjing’s capture extinguished what might have been the Ming dynasty’s last realistic chance for survival. While resistance continued in various forms for decades, never again would anti-Qing forces control such significant territory and resources. The city’s fall marked not just the end of a regime, but the closing of one of China’s most culturally vibrant historical epochs.