The Fragile Peace of the Early Han Dynasty

In the spring of 196 BCE, as the eleventh year of Emperor Gaozu’s reign drew to a close, the northern rebellions that had plagued the nascent Han Dynasty finally collapsed. Only the rebel leader Chen Xi remained, fleeing with his shattered forces into Yunzhong Commandery. Emperor Gaozu, considering Chen Xi no longer a significant threat, dispatched generals Zhou Bo and Fan Kuai to deal with this last remnant of resistance. By the third lunar month, they had crushed Chen Xi’s Xiongnu cavalry forces, capturing his generals including Wang Huang and reclaiming twenty-nine counties across Yanmen and Yunzhong.

This military success marked a turning point for the Han Dynasty, which had emerged victorious from the Chu-Han Contention just years earlier. The dynasty founded by Liu Bang (Emperor Gaozu) stood at a crossroads – having unified China after the collapse of the Qin, it now faced the challenge of maintaining control over its vast territories and powerful regional kings.

The Emperor’s Dilemma: Balancing Power Among the Kings

During his return journey to the capital, Liu Bang stopped at Daixian County. Gazing northward at the formidable mountain ranges that formed natural barriers against the Xiongnu, he mused aloud: “The frontier landscape is truly different! This place borders the Xiongnu and occupies a strategically dangerous position. It shouldn’t be merged with Zhao territory but should remain a separate kingdom, entrusted to a loyal vassal to guard for me.”

This observation revealed Liu Bang’s growing concern about centralizing power while maintaining the feudal system that had helped him secure the empire. Upon reaching Luoyang, he issued an edict separating Zhao and Dai into two kingdoms, intending to appoint a worthy candidate from among the kings, marquises, and high-ranking officials as the new King of Dai with his capital at Jinyang.

Within half a month, thirty-eight officials including Lu Wan and Xiao He jointly petitioned, recommending Liu Heng, one of Liu Bang’s sons by the neglected Consort Bo, as the ideal candidate for Dai. The emperor approved, granting the fifteen-year-old Liu Heng the title. When Liu Heng requested permission to bring his mother to Jinyang, Liu Bang readily agreed – his affections lay entirely with Consort Qi, making Consort Bo’s departure inconsequential to him.

This seemingly minor decision would have profound historical consequences. As the adage goes, “misfortune may be a blessing in disguise.” By leaving the capital’s political intrigues behind, Consort Bo and her son found themselves safely removed from the deadly power struggles that would soon consume the imperial court.

The Purge Begins: The Fall of Han Xin

Upon returning to Chang’an, Liu Bang noticed the subdued demeanor of his officials. His suspicions aroused, he confronted Empress Lü, demanding to know what had transpired in his absence. With trepidation, the empress revealed that Han Xin, the brilliant general who had helped secure the empire, had been executed for plotting rebellion.

The emperor reacted with shock: “Nonsense! How could such a thing happen?” Empress Lü explained that after receiving reports from Han Xin’s household steward Luan Shuo, she had consulted with Chancellor Xiao He before ordering the general’s arrest and execution along with three generations of his family.

Liu Bang, after a moment of stunned silence, sighed: “Han Xin brought this upon himself.” Then, with a faint smile, he added: “Perhaps this is for the best.” This chilling reaction revealed the emperor’s complex relationship with his most talented commander – a mixture of admiration, fear, and relief at the removal of a potential rival.

The following day, Liu Bang summoned Xiao He to the Hong Terrace. In a private audience, he grabbed the chancellor’s sleeve angrily: “You’re no fool when it comes to legal judgments! How could you execute Han Xin based solely on a servant’s accusation overnight?” Xiao He sighed: “Han Xin rose to fame because of me – how could I bear to kill him? But who in the Han court could stop the empress?”

This exchange laid bare the growing tension between Liu Bang’s authority and Empress Lü’s increasing power. Though angry, the emperor recognized the political reality and subsequently rewarded Xiao He with additional fiefs, renaming his position “Chancellor of State” to elevate his status and assigning him a personal guard of 500 soldiers.

However, the wise chancellor soon received a sobering warning from the hermit Shao Ping, who arrived dressed in mourning white: “Your honor will bring disaster!” Shao Ping explained that the emperor’s lavish rewards actually signaled suspicion, pointing out that if even Han Xin with his monumental achievements could be executed, how could Xiao He hope to survive? Taking this advice to heart, Xiao He petitioned to return his additional fiefs and donated most of his family wealth to military supplies, a move that pleased Liu Bang and temporarily secured the chancellor’s safety.

The Hunt for Kuai Tong and the Fate of Peng Yue

The purge continued with the pursuit of Kuai Tong, Han Xin’s strategist who had advised the general to declare independence during the Chu-Han conflict. Captured in Qi by Chancellor Cao Shen, Kuai Tong was brought before Liu Bang. When accused of inciting rebellion, the bold advisor retorted: “At that time, I only knew Han Xin, not Your Majesty. Had Han Xin listened to me, how could you have killed him?”

Rather than executing the outspoken strategist, Liu Bang, impressed by Kuai Tong’s loyalty, pardoned him and even allowed him to retrieve Han Xin’s head for proper burial in Huaiyin. This unexpected clemency demonstrated the emperor’s complex character – capable of both ruthless elimination of threats and surprising magnanimity.

Meanwhile, another major figure met a grimmer fate. Peng Yue, the King of Liang who had helped defeat Xiang Yu, found himself accused of rebellion after failing to join the campaign against Chen Xi. Initially sentenced to exile in Shu, Peng Yue’s fortunes took a darker turn when Empress Lü intercepted him on his journey and brought him back to Luoyang.

The empress, seeing an opportunity to eliminate another potential threat to her son’s succession, orchestrated false accusations that Peng Yue had plotted rebellion after his return. Despite Liu Bang’s initial reluctance, he ultimately approved the execution. Peng Yue’s body was chopped into mincemeat (“hai”) and distributed to the other kings as a warning – a brutal demonstration of the consequences of defying imperial authority.

The tragic aftermath saw Peng Yue’s loyal minister Luan Bu risk execution by publicly mourning his lord. When brought before Liu Bang, Luan Bu delivered a stirring defense of Peng Yue’s contributions during the Chu-Han war. Moved by this display of loyalty, the emperor not only spared Luan Bu but offered him a position in the Han government, showcasing Liu Bang’s ability to recognize and reward genuine talent and loyalty.

The Southern Challenge: Securing Nanyue’s Submission

With the northern rebellions suppressed and major threats eliminated, Liu Bang turned his attention southward to Nanyue, where the former Qin general Zhao Tuo had established an independent kingdom. Recognizing the difficulties of military conquest given Nanyue’s formidable natural defenses and the empire’s exhaustion after years of war, Liu Bang opted for diplomacy.

He dispatched the eloquent Lu Jia as envoy, bearing gifts and the official seal recognizing Zhao Tuo as King of Nanyue. Lu Jia’s masterful negotiation combined flattery with veiled threats, warning Zhao Tuo that continued defiance would lead to the destruction of his ancestral tombs and the might of the Han army descending upon his kingdom.

Impressed by Lu Jia’s rhetoric and recognizing the benefits of nominal submission, Zhao Tuo accepted the seal and reopened trade routes, bringing Nanyue into the Han sphere without bloodshed. This diplomatic triumph earned Lu Jia promotion to Grand Master of Remonstrance, demonstrating Liu Bang’s appreciation for non-military solutions when appropriate.

The Final Rebellion: Ying Bu’s Defiance

The last major challenge came from Ying Bu, the King of Huainan, who grew increasingly fearful after witnessing the fates of Han Xin and Peng Yue. When his subordinate Ben He fled to the capital accusing him of rebellion, Ying Bu, seeing no alternative, raised the banner of revolt in the summer of 196 BCE.

Liu Bang, now aging and ailing, initially considered sending the crown prince to lead the campaign. However, after protests from Empress Lü and advice from the “Four Haos of Shangshan” (reclusive advisors supporting the heir apparent), the emperor reluctantly decided to lead the expedition himself despite his poor health.

The campaign proved challenging. Ying Bu, a former Xiang Yu lieutenant and formidable commander, initially achieved victories against the Kings of Jing and Chu. However, at the decisive Battle of Kuaixi in winter 195 BCE, Liu Bang’s forces under Cao Shen, Guan Ying, and Li Shang eventually prevailed through superior numbers and tactics.

Defeated and abandoned by his allies, Ying Bu fled south only to be betrayed and killed by his brother-in-law, the King of Changsha. His head was sent to Liu Bang, who by this point was seriously wounded by an arrow during the campaign – an injury that would contribute to his death less than a year later.

Legacy of the Purges: Stabilization at a Cost

The elimination of the major kings – Han Xin, Peng Yue, and Ying Bu – secured the Liu family’s hold on power but came at significant moral and political costs. These events demonstrated the fundamental tension in the early Han system between centralized authority and regional autonomy.

Liu Bang’s establishment of Liu family members as kings in place of his former comrades created a new set of challenges that would plague the dynasty for generations. The growing influence of Empress Lü in these purges also set troubling precedents for court politics, foreshadowing her dominant role after Liu Bang’s death.

Ultimately, these events shaped the Han Dynasty’s trajectory, eliminating immediate threats but establishing patterns of suspicion and violence that would characterize imperial politics for centuries to come. The stories of these fallen kings – their brilliance, their ambitions, and their tragic ends – became cautionary tales about the perils of power in imperial China.