A Turbulent Succession in the Han-Zhao Court

In July 318 CE, the death of Liu Cong, emperor of the Han-Zhao state (one of the Sixteen Kingdoms during China’s tumultuous Jin Dynasty period), set off a chain of events that would unravel the short-lived Xiongnu-led regime. His son, Liu Can, inherited the throne but quickly proved even more dissolute than his father.

Though Liu Can had shown promise in his youth—like many scions of the Tu’ge (屠各) Xiongnu elite who received thorough military and literary education—his reign devolved into debauchery. He neglected governance, indulged in lavish palace projects, and became infatuated with his young stepmother, Empress Dowager Jin Yuehua. This moral decay created an opening for ambitious courtiers, particularly Jin Yuehua’s father, Jin Zhun.

The Jin Zhun Coup and Political Chaos

Jin Zhun, a non-Tu’ge Xiongnu official, exploited Liu Can’s weakness. Through manipulation—including using his daughter’s influence—he convinced the emperor to purge potential rivals, executing key members of the imperial clan. With the court weakened, Jin Zhun staged a coup just two months after Liu Can’s accession.

The coup was brutal: Liu Can and all remaining Liu family members in the capital were slaughtered. Jin Zhun desecrated the tombs of Liu Yuan (founder of Han-Zhao) and Liu Cong, burning ancestral temples and declaring himself “Heavenly King of Han.” His attempt to legitimize his rule by appealing to the Eastern Jin Dynasty backfired, exposing fractures within the Xiongnu power structure.

The Rise of Shi Le and the Collapse of Han-Zhao

The chaos invited intervention from regional warlords. Liu Yao, a Han-Zhao general stationed in Chang’an, declared himself emperor and allied with Shi Le—a former slave turned military leader—to crush Jin Zhun. However, this alliance was short-lived.

Shi Le, a Jie (羯) leader, outmaneuvered Liu Yao. After Jin Zhun’s assassination by his own subordinates, Shi Le seized Pingyang (the Han-Zhao capital), absorbed its population, and strategically repositioned himself as a restorer of Liu Yuan’s legacy—while quietly dismantling Han-Zhao’s remnants. By 319 CE, he formally broke with Liu Yao, establishing his own Zhao regime (Later Zhao).

Cultural and Military Transformations

Shi Le’s rise marked a shift in northern China’s ethnic dynamics. Unlike the Tu’ge Xiongnu, who maintained a hierarchy with themselves at the top, Shi Le promoted an inclusive “Jie identity.” He granted the surname “Shi” to diverse groups—Xiongnu, Han Chinese, and other “mixed Hu” (杂胡)—forging unity through shared hardship. This policy, born from his own experience as a kidnapped laborer, helped him consolidate power across Hebei and Shanxi.

Key to his success was winning over marginalized groups. The Han-Zhao had alienated many non-Tu’ge tribes, whom Shi Le actively recruited. His flexible approach contrasted with Liu Yao’s reliance on traditional Xiongnu elites, hastening Han-Zhao’s collapse.

Legacy: The End of Xiongnu Dominance

The events of 318–319 CE signaled the decline of Xiongnu political influence in China. Shi Le’s Later Zhao became a dominant force, while Liu Yao’s rump state (Former Zhao) dwindled. The power vacuum also impacted figures like Liu Kun, a Jin loyalist whose resistance in Bingzhou became legendary despite his eventual betrayal and execution.

Shi Le’s model of cross-ethnic integration set precedents for later northern dynasties. His ability to transcend tribal divisions foreshadowed the eventual unification under the Northern Wei. Meanwhile, the Han-Zhao’s implosion demonstrated how rapid sinicization and internal strife could erode even the most formidable steppe regimes.

Modern Reflections

This period underscores recurring themes in Chinese history: the fluidity of ethnic identity, the fragility of hybrid states, and the pragmatic alliances that shaped empires. For contemporary scholars, Shi Le’s rise offers a case study in state-building amid diversity—a relevance echoed in today’s discussions about unity and pluralism.

The fall of Han-Zhao also birthed enduring cultural narratives, such as the romanticized memory of Liu Kun as a tragic hero. His story, like the dynasty’s collapse, reminds us that history often favors those who embody resilience—even in defeat.