The Collapsing Ming Dynasty and Nanjing’s Last Stand

The year 1645 marked a pivotal moment in Chinese history as the Ming Dynasty teetered on the brink of collapse. The Hongguang Emperor, Zhu Yousong, had established his court in Nanjing after the fall of Beijing to rebel forces, only to face the relentless advance of the Qing armies. This southern Ming regime, intended as a revival of imperial authority, instead became a spectacle of dysfunction and missed opportunities.

Nanjing in early 1645 presented a paradox – while still possessing formidable defensive capabilities and loyal military commanders like Huang Degong, the court had descended into factional infighting. Chief Minister Ma Shiying and his associate Ruan Dacheng dominated the administration, prioritizing personal power over national survival. The emperor himself, more interested in theatrical performances and personal pleasures than governance, became increasingly detached from the deteriorating military situation.

The Desperate Flight from Nanjing

As Qing forces approached the southern capital in May 1645, panic gripped the Hongguang court. On the night of the tenth day of the fifth lunar month (June 13, 1645), the emperor made his fateful decision to abandon Nanjing. Contrary to some historical accounts that suggest he fled secretly, contemporary records from Huang Daozhou reveal a more complex scenario.

The original plan called for escape to Hangzhou, with the emperor traveling alongside Ma Shiying and Empress Dowager Zou. However, their journey took a disastrous turn near Lishui County where local militia intercepted the imperial party. In the ensuing chaos, Ma Shiying’s son Ma Luan led the imperial guards to spirit the emperor westward toward Taiping Prefecture while Ma Shiying himself escorted the empress dowager toward Hangzhou. This unplanned separation would have grave consequences for all involved.

Huang Degong’s Loyalty and the Emperor’s Betrayal

The emperor’s unexpected arrival at Huang Degong’s camp in Wuhu created both an opportunity and a crisis. Huang, a seasoned commander who had just repelled an attack from Zuo Menggeng’s forces, was shocked by the emperor’s appearance. His poignant rebuke – “Why did Your Majesty listen to treacherous advisors and abandon the ancestral capital?” – revealed both his loyalty and frustration.

Despite recognizing the emperor’s poor judgment, Huang Degong committed himself to the hopeless cause. He welcomed Zhu Yousong into his camp and began planning a counteroffensive. The emperor, in a belated show of authority, issued promotions to various commanders including Huang Degong, hoping to rally support. Yet these gestures proved meaningless as the Qing forces, led by Dodo, had already taken Nanjing and were closing in on Wuhu.

The Final Tragedy at Wuhu

The Qing strategy combined military pressure with psychological warfare. They deployed the recently surrendered Ming general Liu Liangzuo to persuade Huang Degong’s forces to switch sides. Facing overwhelming odds and tempted by promises of rank under the new regime, Huang’s subordinates Tian Xiong and Ma Degong secretly decided to defect.

The final confrontation was both dramatic and ignoble. Huang Degong, unaware of the betrayal, executed Liu Liangzuo’s envoy and prepared for battle. During the engagement, he was struck by a hidden arrow – accounts differ whether it came from Qing forces or his own men – and chose suicide over surrender. The captured Hongguang Emperor reportedly bit Tian Xiong’s neck in a final act of desperation as he was carried to the Qing commanders.

The Aftermath and Historical Reckoning

The exact date of the emperor’s capture remains debated among sources, ranging from May 24 to 28 in the lunar calendar. What’s certain is that his surrender marked the effective end of organized Ming resistance in the south, though pockets of loyalty would persist for years.

Contemporary observers like Zhang Dai left scathing indictments of the Hongguang regime, comparing the emperor unfavorably to history’s most notorious failed rulers. While Zhu Yousong’s personal failings were undeniable, deeper structural problems – factionalism, military decentralization, and systemic corruption – doomed the Southern Ming from its inception.

Legacy of a Failed Restoration

The Hongguang episode represents more than just the collapse of one regime; it symbolizes the tragic failure of the Ming loyalist cause. The speed and manner of its demise – less than a year after proclaiming the restoration – demonstrated how deeply the dynasty’s problems had taken root.

Modern historians view the period as a case study in how not to conduct governance during crisis. The contrast between Huang Degong’s principled stand and the court’s dysfunction offers enduring lessons about leadership during national emergencies. The Southern Ming’s failure paved the way for nearly three centuries of Qing rule, making 1645 one of the most consequential years in Chinese history.

The story of the Hongguang Emperor’s flight and capture continues to resonate as a cautionary tale about the perils of poor leadership, misplaced priorities, and the consequences when rulers lose touch with both reality and their responsibilities to those they govern.