The Rise and Rebellion of the Red Eyebrows

In the turbulent years following Wang Mang’s failed Xin Dynasty (9-23 CE), China witnessed numerous peasant uprisings vying for power. Among these, the Red Eyebrows (Chimei) emerged as one of the most formidable rebel forces during the early Eastern Han period. Their distinctive practice of painting their eyebrows red gave them both their name and fearsome reputation.

Originating in Shandong province around 18 CE, the Red Eyebrows began as desperate peasants resisting oppressive taxation and famine. Under the leadership of Fan Chong and other rebel commanders, they quickly grew into a massive movement that would challenge both the collapsing Xin regime and the nascent Han restoration under Liu Xuan (Emperor Gengshi).

The rebellion’s early success stemmed from several factors:

– Severe economic distress following Wang Mang’s disastrous reforms
– Widespread famine across northern China
– Discontent among displaced landowners and military officers
– The charismatic leadership of peasant commanders

Unlike more organized rebel groups, the Red Eyebrows maintained a relatively egalitarian structure, with leaders chosen for their ability rather than noble birth. This democratic approach—while effective for mobilization—would later prove problematic when establishing governance.

The Puppet Emperor and the Conquest of Chang’an

By 25 CE, the Red Eyebrows stood at a crossroads. Having defeated numerous opponents, they controlled vast territories but lacked legitimacy in the eyes of China’s elite. The solution came in an unexpected form—the installation of Liu Penzi, a teenage cowherd and distant relative of the Han imperial clan, as their figurehead emperor.

The selection process itself revealed much about the rebellion’s nature. Three potential candidates from the Liu clan were made to draw lots from a container holding one marked slip. When the illiterate Liu Penzi drew the winning lot, his terrified reaction—bursting into tears and trying to flee—hardly inspired confidence. Yet this very weakness made him the perfect puppet for Fan Chong and other Red Eyebrows leaders.

With their new “Emperor Jian Shi,” the Red Eyebrows marched on Chang’an in June 25 CE. The capital, already weakened by infighting under Liu Xuan’s crumbling regime, fell with surprising ease. The rebel entry into China’s glorious capital marked both their greatest triumph and the beginning of their downfall.

From Discipline to Disorder: The Corruption of Power

The Red Eyebrows’ occupation of Chang’an revealed the fundamental contradiction at the rebellion’s heart. What began as a movement against oppression quickly transformed into its opposite. Contemporary accounts describe shocking scenes:

– Looting of government granaries and noble residences
– Violent clashes between rival factions
– Destruction of imperial temples and records
– Widespread sexual violence against noble women

Most notoriously, the rebels desecrated the imperial tombs near Chang’an, including that of Empress Lü Zhi. The historical records describe particularly gruesome violations of her corpse—though modern historians debate the veracity of these accounts, seeing them as possible political propaganda.

Within months, the Red Eyebrows had exhausted Chang’an’s resources through their uncontrolled plundering. By early 26 CE, facing starvation, they abandoned the capital in search of new territories to exploit—a pattern that would repeat across western China with devastating consequences.

The Strategic Genius of Liu Xiu

While the Red Eyebrows struggled to govern, their eventual conqueror Liu Xiu (later Emperor Guangwu) demonstrated the political and military acumen they sorely lacked. Several key factors distinguished Liu Xiu’s approach:

1. Legitimacy Through Restoration: Unlike the Red Eyebrows’ contrived imperial claim, Liu Xiu could trace direct lineage to the Han imperial house.

2. Disciplined Administration: Liu Xiu’s forces maintained strict supply lines rather than living off plunder.

3. Strategic Patience: He allowed enemies to weaken themselves through infighting and poor governance.

4. Psychological Warfare: Liu Xiu mastered the art of appearing magnanimous while remaining ruthless when necessary.

The contrast became starkest in their treatment of prisoners and conquered territories. Where the Red Eyebrows left devastation, Liu Xiu worked to restore agriculture and civil administration—understanding that long-term stability required winning hearts, not just battles.

The Final Campaign and Surrender

The Red Eyebrows’ western campaign proved disastrous. After being defeated by regional warlord Wei Xiao in Longxi, they faced a brutal winter that decimated their ranks. By late 26 CE, the starving remnants turned back toward Chang’an—only to find Liu Xiu’s general Deng Yu now controlled the region.

What followed was a masterclass in military encirclement. Liu Xiu’s forces:

– Allowed the Red Eyebrows to exhaust themselves further
– Blocked potential escape routes
– Waited for their complete demoralization
– Offered surrender terms that appeared generous but ensured control

The final confrontation came in 27 CE at Yiyang, where Liu Xiu personally oversaw the rebels’ surrender. In a carefully staged ceremony, over 100,000 Red Eyebrows soldiers laid down their arms. Liu Penzi presented the imperial seal—a symbolic transfer of legitimacy.

Liu Xiu’s handling of the surrender demonstrated his political brilliance. While executing some leaders who later rebelled (like Fan Chong), he:

– Publicly pardoned Liu Penzi, who lived out his days in obscurity
– Granted land to surrendered officers near Luoyang for monitoring
– Used the victory to bolster his image as a merciful unifier

Legacy and Historical Significance

The Red Eyebrows rebellion holds several important lessons in Chinese history:

1. The Limits of Peasant Uprisings: Their rapid transformation from oppressed to oppressors highlighted how rebellions often replicate the systems they oppose.

2. The Importance of Administration: Military success meant little without governance structures—a lesson Liu Xiu applied in rebuilding the Han.

3. Symbolic vs. Actual Power: Liu Penzi’s emperorship showed how figureheads could provide temporary legitimacy but couldn’t compensate for poor leadership.

4. The Cost of Chaos: The rebellion’s devastation helped justify Liu Xiu’s centralized rule, as Chinese elites prioritized stability over freedom.

Modern assessments have grown more nuanced. While traditional histories portrayed the Red Eyebrows as bandits, contemporary scholars recognize:

– Their genuine grievances against Wang Mang’s regime
– The impossible challenge of transitioning from rebellion to governance
– How their failure paved the way for the Eastern Han’s “Restoration”

The rebellion’s suppression marked a turning point in Liu Xiu’s consolidation of power. Within a decade, he would defeat all remaining rivals, reuniting China under the Eastern Han Dynasty—a dynasty that would last another 200 years, due in part to lessons learned from the Red Eyebrows’ rise and fall.