The Rise of the Qing and the Shun Interregnum

The year 1644 marked a seismic shift in Chinese history. As the Ming Dynasty crumbled under internal rebellions and external pressures, two rival powers emerged: the Manchu-led Qing forces in the north and the peasant rebellion of Li Zicheng, who established the short-lived Shun Dynasty after capturing Beijing. When the last Ming emperor Chongzhen hanged himself on Coal Hill, it created a power vacuum that both factions rushed to fill.

In September 1644, the Qing regent Dorgon made a decisive move by escorting the young Shunzhi Emperor from Shenyang to Beijing, where his formal enthronement ceremony was held on October 1. This symbolic act signaled Qing ambitions to rule all of China, not just their Manchurian homeland. Meanwhile, Li Zicheng’s Shun forces controlled much of northern China, while the Ming loyalists established the Hongguang regime in Nanjing.

The Two-Front War: Qing’s Strategic Gambit

By mid-October 1644, the Qing leadership felt confident enough to launch a massive two-pronged offensive. Prince Regent Dorgon dispatched:

– Prince Ying Ajige with Wu Sangui and Shang Kexi leading 80,000 troops northwest toward Shaanxi to crush the Shun rebels
– Prince Yu Dodo with Kong Youde and Geng Zhongming marching south toward Nanjing to eliminate the Ming remnant forces

This ambitious plan aimed to simultaneously destroy both rival regimes, demonstrating the Qing’s growing military confidence after their successful entry into Beijing.

The Huaiqing Counteroffensive: A Tactical Turning Point

Just as Qing forces mobilized, the Shun army launched a surprise counterattack in Henan’s Huaiqing region on October 12. Some 20,000 Shun troops crossed from Shanxi into Henan, achieving several quick victories:

– Captured Jiyuan and Meng counties
– Killed Qing commander Jin Yuhe at Boxiang Town
– Threatened the strategic city of Qinyang

This unexpected Shun offensive forced Dorgon to radically alter strategy. He immediately redirected Dodo’s southern expeditionary force to relieve Huaiqing, then proceed to attack Tong Pass (Tongguan) – the crucial gateway to Shaanxi. This decision inadvertently gave the Nanjing regime temporary respite, though the Ming loyalists failed to capitalize on this opportunity.

The Battle of Tong Pass: Thirteen Days That Shook Northwest China

After suppressing the Huaiqing uprising, Dodo’s forces turned toward Shaanxi. The ensuing Battle of Tong Pass (December 29, 1644 – January 11, 1645) proved decisive:

– Initial Shun defenses under Liu Zongmin held firm
– Li Zicheng personally led reinforcements from Xi’an
– Qing deployed devastating “red jacket” artillery
– Fierce cavalry clashes and flanking maneuvers failed to reverse Shun losses

Simultaneously, Ajige’s northern army broke through Shaanxi’s defenses:
– Crossed the Yellow River at Baode
– Committed atrocities in Li Zicheng’s hometown
– Advanced south toward Xi’an

Caught between two advancing Qing armies, Li Zicheng made the fateful decision to abandon Xi’an on January 13, 1645, beginning his tragic retreat through Hubei that would ultimately lead to his death.

The Collapse of Shun Authority in the Northwest

The Qing advance triggered widespread defections among former Ming officers who had nominally served the Shun regime:

– Ningxia commander Chen Zhilong switched sides
– General Bai Guang’en surrendered at Lantian Pass
– Multiple garrison commanders in Gansu defected
– Sichuan expeditionary force (10,000+ troops) joined Qing

These betrayals:
– Deprived Shun forces of critical reinforcements
– Exposed their vulnerable supply lines
– Allowed Qing to consolidate control rapidly

Why the Shun Dynasty Failed: A Historian’s Analysis

Several key factors contributed to the Shun’s rapid collapse:

1. Strategic Overextension: Attempting to govern newly conquered territories while fighting the Qing proved impossible
2. Leadership Crisis: Li Zicheng’s commanders lacked experience governing a national regime
3. Defection Epidemic: Former Ming officers remained unreliable allies
4. Resource Limitations: The Shun never established stable revenue streams
5. Dual Front War: Simultaneous pressure from Qing and Ming loyalists proved fatal

The Legacy of 1644-45: Reshaping China’s Future

These pivotal months established patterns that would define Qing rule:

– Military Strategy: Demonstrated Qing adaptability in large-scale campaigns
– Political Integration: Began the process of incorporating Han Chinese into Manchu rule
– Territorial Control: Established Qing dominance over northern China
– Historical Narrative: Created the “Mandate of Heaven” transition mythos

The fall of the Shun Dynasty marked more than just a regime change – it represented the final failure of peasant rebellion to establish lasting rule in imperial China, while demonstrating the Qing’s ability to adapt Chinese governing traditions to their conquest state.

The events of 1644-45 continue to resonate in modern historical discourse, offering lessons about the fragility of revolutionary regimes and the challenges of political consolidation during dynastic transitions. For contemporary readers, this period provides fascinating insights into how China’s last imperial dynasty overcame incredible odds to establish three centuries of rule.