The Twilight of the Warring States

In 221 BCE, the last independent state of Qi fell to the armies of Qin, marking the end of an era. The once-powerful states of Chu, Yan, Zhao, Han, Wei, and Qi had all been conquered, their rulers either captured or reduced to fugitive regimes in remote territories. The military campaigns, led primarily by the father-son duo Wang Jian and Wang Ben, had achieved what no ruler before had managed: the unification of China under a single authority.

This was not merely a political conquest but the culmination of five centuries of fragmentation. The Spring and Autumn period (770–476 BCE) had given way to the Warring States era (475–221 BCE), a time of relentless conflict, shifting alliances, and cultural transformation. What had begun as a loose confederation of feudal states centered around the Yellow River basin had expanded into a sprawling network of competing powers, each vying for dominance.

The Rise of Qin and the Mechanics of Conquest

Qin’s ascendancy was no accident. Its strategic reforms under Lord Shang Yang in the 4th century BCE had transformed it into a bureaucratic and militarized state. By the time Ying Zheng (later Qin Shi Huang) ascended the throne in 246 BCE, Qin possessed a disciplined army, standardized laws, and an efficient administrative system.

The conquest unfolded methodically:
– Han fell first in 230 BCE, its weakness exploited by Qin’s general Neishi Teng.
– Zhao followed in 228 BCE after a protracted struggle, though a rump state persisted in Dai.
– Wei was crushed in 225 BCE when Wang Ben diverted the Yellow River to flood its capital.
– Chu, the largest rival, succumbed in 223 BCE after initial Qin setbacks.
– Yan and Qi were the last to fall in 222 and 221 BCE, respectively.

Remarkably, Ying Zheng never personally led a campaign. His genius lay in delegation—trusting generals like Wang Jian, who understood the art of attrition warfare.

Inventing the “Emperor”: A New Political Order

With the Six Kingdoms vanquished, Ying Zheng faced a dilemma: how to rule an empire far larger than any preceding dynasty. Rejecting the feudal model of decentralized power, he declared:
> “The suffering of the people stems from the existence of rival kings and lords. There shall be no more ‘kings’ but one sovereign.”

His advisors proposed the archaic title Taihuang (“Supreme Sovereign”), but Ying Zheng—ever the innovator—combined Huang (“August”) and Di (“Divine Ruler”) to create Huangdi: Emperor. He became Qin Shi Huang, the “First Emperor,” abolishing posthumous names to emphasize dynastic continuity: “From me, it shall pass ten thousand generations!”

Standardization and Centralization

The First Emperor’s reforms were sweeping:
– Administrative: Replacing feudalism with 36 commanderies (jun), each governed by centrally appointed officials.
– Cultural: Unifying weights, measures, and—critically—writing scripts to suppress regional identities.
– Infrastructure: Standardizing axle widths (tonggui) to ensure seamless travel across imperial roads.

These measures were pragmatic but also ideological. As a former hostage in Zhao, Ying Zheng had experienced firsthand the inefficiencies of disunity. His policies sought to erase the very concept of “foreignness” within his borders.

Resistance and Legacy

Not everyone embraced unity. The blind musician Gao Jianli, a friend of the failed assassin Jing Ke, attempted to kill the emperor by hurling a lead-weighted zhu (a stringed instrument). His execution symbolized the lingering resistance among conquered elites.

Yet Qin Shi Huang’s vision endured. Despite the dynasty’s collapse in 206 BCE, later rulers retained the title “Emperor” and the centralized model. Even during periods of division—like the Three Kingdoms—the ideal of a unified China persisted.

Conclusion: The Price of Unity

The Qin unification was brutal but transformative. It ended centuries of warfare at the cost of autocratic rigidity. The First Emperor’s obsession with control—from burning books to burying scholars—revealed the paradox of his reign: stability achieved through coercion.

Yet without his ruthlessness, China might have evolved like Europe—a patchwork of nations. For better or worse, Qin Shi Huang’s empire laid the foundation for two millennia of Chinese civilization, proving that unity, however imposed, could reshape history.