The Collapse of Ming Authority and Rise of Southern Ming

As the Qing forces battled peasant rebel armies across northern China in the mid-17th century, a rump Ming court established itself in Nanjing, proclaiming the Hongguang reign (1644-1645). This Southern Ming regime, rather than capitalizing on the Qing’s preoccupation with rebels like Li Zicheng, chose passive survival over active resistance. The court officials dreamed of recreating historical southern dynasties like the Eastern Jin or Southern Song that had maintained Chinese culture south of the Yangtze. This fatal miscalculation would seal their doom when the Qing turned their full attention southward after defeating Li Zicheng’s rebel forces.

The Southern Ming military situation was dire from the outset. Commanders like Zuo Liangyu operated with near-autonomy, more concerned with personal power than national defense. When Zuo rebelled under the pretext of “cleansing the court” in early 1645, the Nanjing government had to divert precious troops from the northern defenses to confront him. This internal division left the Yangtze frontier critically weakened just as the Qing launched their southern campaign.

The Qing Southern Campaign and Fall of Nanjing

In April 1645, the Qing army approached Yangzhou, a key Yangtze defensive position. After bombarding the city with European-style cannons called “red barbarian guns,” they captured it on April 24. The heroic defender Shi Kefa was executed, and the city suffered a brutal massacre that became legendary for its cruelty. This victory opened the path to Nanjing.

By early May, Qing forces crossed the Yangtze at Guazhou and took Zhenjiang without resistance. On June 8, 1645, Nanjing surrendered without a fight as high officials like Zhao Zhilong and Qian Qianyi defected. The Hongguang Emperor was captured while attempting to flee and later executed in Beijing. The Qing then systematically eliminated other Ming claimants, including the Prince of Lu who had been proclaimed regent in Hangzhou.

Popular Resistance and the Haircutting Order

The Qing victory turned pyrrhic when they imposed the infamous “haircutting order,” requiring Han Chinese to adopt the Manchu queue hairstyle as a sign of submission. This cultural edict sparked massive uprisings across Jiangnan.

In Jiangyin, local gentry led by Chen Mingyu and Yan Yingyuan organized 200,000 militia to resist. The city held out against tens of thousands of Qing troops for 81 days before falling in August 1645 after intense artillery bombardment. Similar resistance in Jiading saw the city change hands three times, with horrific massacres following each Qing recapture.

These popular movements, though ultimately crushed, demonstrated that Qing conquest would not be peacefully accepted. They bought time for more organized Ming resistance to form further south.

The Long Resistance of the Yongli Court

The most enduring Ming resistance formed around the Yongli Emperor (Zhu Youlang), proclaimed in Zhaoqing, Guangdong in late 1646. This regime survived through an unlikely alliance with former peasant rebels – remnants of Li Zicheng’s and Zhang Xianzhong’s armies who now fought under the Ming banner.

Key figures like Qu Shisi and He Tengjiao organized defenses in Guangxi, where Portuguese artillerymen from Macao helped repel Qing attacks on Guilin in 1647. The Yongli court even sent Polish Jesuit Michał Boym to Europe in 1650 to seek papal support, though this desperate mission ultimately failed.

The military situation dramatically improved in 1652 when former rebel commander Li Dingguo won stunning victories, killing Qing princes Kong Youde and Nikan. At its height, the Yongli regime controlled much of southwest China. However, internal divisions between Li Dingguo and rival commander Sun Kewang fatally weakened the resistance.

The Final Collapse

After Sun Kewang defected to the Qing in 1657, revealing Ming defensive plans, the Qing launched a massive three-pronged invasion in 1658. Despite heroic last stands like the Battle of Mount Mopan in 1659, the Ming cause was doomed.

The Yongli Emperor fled to Burma but was extradited and executed by Wu Sangui in 1662. Li Dingguo died shortly after, heartbroken at the dynasty’s final collapse. Though scattered resistance continued under Zheng Chenggong (Koxinga) in Taiwan and Li Zicheng’s remnants in the Sichuan-Hubei border region, organized Ming resistance on the mainland had ended.

Legacy of the Southern Ming Resistance

The Southern Ming’s nearly two-decade struggle left an enduring legacy. Their resistance demonstrated the depth of Han Chinese opposition to Manchu rule, forcing the Qing to adopt more conciliatory policies over time. The alliance between Ming loyalists and former rebels showed how national crisis could transcend class divisions.

The Yongli court’s international outreach, including its Catholic connections and European diplomacy, marked an early chapter in China’s engagement with the West. Meanwhile, the Qing’s effective use of artillery and other European military technology demonstrated their pragmatic adaptability.

Ultimately, the Southern Ming’s tragic failure underscored the difficulties of maintaining dynastic legitimacy without effective military power or unified leadership. Their story remains a poignant tale of loyalty, resistance, and the painful birth of a new imperial order.