The Fractured Southern Ming Court

The Southern Ming regime, clinging to legitimacy after the fall of Beijing in 1644, faced its greatest internal crisis when Sun Kewang, one of its most powerful military leaders, defected to the Qing in 1657. This betrayal represented more than just another warlord switching sides—it exposed the deep fractures within the Yongli Emperor’s court that would ultimately lead to its destruction.

Sun had been a dominant figure since the Southern Ming’s relocation to Yunnan, controlling military forces across Yunnan, Guizhou, Sichuan, Huguang and Guangxi. His defection followed a failed power struggle against fellow general Li Dingguo, who had emerged as the Yongli Emperor’s primary protector. While the immediate military consequences proved less catastrophic than feared—the core Ming armies remained intact—the political and psychological damage proved irreparable.

The Roots of Division

The Southern Ming’s internal divisions traced back to its origins as a coalition of disparate forces. After the Chongzhen Emperor’s suicide, multiple Ming princes declared themselves emperor across southern China. The Yongli regime in the southwest united former peasant rebellion armies—notably the remnants of Zhang Xianzhong’s Daxi forces—with Ming loyalists and regional warlords.

This uneasy alliance contained inherent tensions. The former rebel commanders like Sun Kewang and Li Dingguo maintained their own military structures while nominally serving the Ming. Scholar-officials distrusted these “bandit-turned-loyalist” generals, while the generals resented bureaucratic interference. Regional warlords like Zheng Chenggong operated with near-complete autonomy. The court became a battleground between these factions, with the weak Yongli Emperor unable to impose unity.

The Sun-Li Rivalry Erupts

The conflict between Sun Kewang and Li Dingguo represented more than personal ambition—it reflected competing visions for the Ming resistance. Sun favored consolidating control over the southwest, while Li advocated aggressive campaigns to retake central China. Their rivalry turned violent in 1656 when Sun attempted to seize the emperor from Li’s protection.

The decisive Battle of Jiaoshui in 1657 saw Li defeat Sun’s forces, but failed to eliminate him. Sun’s subsequent defection to the Qing provided the Manchus with invaluable intelligence about Ming defenses and internal weaknesses. More damagingly, it shattered the illusion of Ming unity that had sustained resistance morale.

Li Dingguo’s Strategic Missteps

In the aftermath of Sun’s betrayal, Li Dingguo made several critical errors that accelerated the Ming collapse. Rather than reconciling with Sun’s former officers, Li instituted discriminatory policies, labeling them “Qin troops” while his own forces were “Jin troops.” This alienated valuable military talent at the worst possible moment.

Li also recalled frontline commanders like Liu Wenxiu from critical border regions, fatally weakening perimeter defenses. When Qing forces launched their three-pronged invasion in early 1658, Ming border garrisons collapsed with minimal resistance. By the time Li personally took the field in July, Qing armies had already secured Guizhou’s strategic passes.

The Qing Offensive and Ming Collapse

The Qing invasion plan exploited Ming disunity perfectly. Wu Sangui advanced from Sichuan, Zhao Butai from Guangxi, and Luo Tuo from Hunan—all converging on Kunming. Li’s scattered forces couldn’t concentrate against any single column. Critical strongpoints like the Iron Chain Bridge at Pan River fell through a combination of Qing deception and Ming disorganization.

By December 1658, the Ming court abandoned Kunming in disarray. The subsequent debate over retreat routes—whether to Sichuan or Burma—further exposed leadership divisions. Li’s decision to withdraw west rather than join Sichuan-based Ming forces under Feng Shuangli proved fateful, splitting remaining resistance into isolated pockets.

The Cultural Legacy of Resistance

Though militarily defeated, the Southern Ming’s prolonged resistance left enduring cultural impacts. The Yongli Emperor’s court became a symbol of Han Chinese defiance against Manchu rule, inspiring later anti-Qing movements. Li Dingguo’s transformation from peasant rebel to loyalist general entered folklore as a tale of redemption and sacrifice.

The Ming collapse also accelerated Han migration into Yunnan and Southeast Asia, spreading Ming cultural influences. Ming loyalists like the Zheng family on Taiwan and the “Thirteen Houses” in Sichuan-Hubei borderlands maintained resistance for decades, preserving Ming traditions against Qing acculturation efforts.

Lessons from the Ming Collapse

The Southern Ming’s failure offers several historical lessons about resistance movements. First, internal unity proves as critical as military strength—the Sun-Li feud fatally weakened Ming defenses. Second, leadership personality matters profoundly; Li Dingguo’s suspicion toward potential allies contrasted sharply with the Qing’s ability to incorporate former enemies like Wu Sangui.

Finally, the episode demonstrates how dynastic transitions involve more than battlefield outcomes—they represent competing visions of political legitimacy. The Yongli court’s inability to reconcile its constituent factions undermined its claim to represent a restored Ming order, while the Qing increasingly appeared as China’s inevitable reunifiers.

The last Ming emperor’s flight into Burma in 1659 marked not just the end of a regime, but the closing of an era—one whose memory would fuel Chinese nationalism for centuries to come. The betrayed hopes of Sun Kewang’s defection and Li Dingguo’s failed resistance became embedded in China’s historical consciousness, a poignant reminder of the costs of disunity.