The Collapse of Ming Loyalist Hopes

In the turbulent spring of 1645, the newly established Southern Ming Hongguang regime faced its moment of reckoning. As Qing forces consolidated control over Shaanxi after defeating Li Zicheng’s rebel army, the regent Prince Dorgon swiftly turned his attention southward. The Ming loyalists’ strategy of “using barbarians to suppress rebels” had backfired spectacularly – their hoped-for buffer against the Manchus now became their executioner. The Hongguang Emperor Zhu Yousong and his ministers, having failed to reinforce Shandong and Henan when the Qing armies marched west, now faced the consequences of their shortsightedness.

The Three-Pronged Qing Offensive

The Qing conquest of southern China unfolded with remarkable coordination through three simultaneous campaigns. The central route, commanded by Dodo, moved from Shaanxi through Tong Pass to Luoyang, then east to Shangqiu before turning south toward Sizhou and Yangzhou, ultimately targeting Nanjing. This force engaged Ming commanders Gao Jie, Liu Liangzuo, and Huang Degong’s troops.

The western route under Prince Ajige pursued Li Zicheng’s remnants through Shaanxi’s Shangluo and Henan’s Dengzhou into Hubei, crushing both rebel forces and Zuo Liangyu’s Ming army before linking with Dodo’s troops in Anhui. Meanwhile, the eastern column led by Zhunta advanced from Shandong along the Grand Canal, capturing Xuzhou, Suqian, and Huai’an before securing coastal areas north of the Yangtze.

Strategic Blunders and Military Collapse

As the Qing forces approached, Ming defenses crumbled with shocking rapidity. Shi Kefa, the Ming commander charged with Yangzhou’s defense, demonstrated tragic incompetence. His chaotic orders – alternately commanding troops to Pukou, Yangzhou, and Tianchang within a single day – revealed his complete loss of strategic control. By April 17, when Qing forces encamped twenty li from Yangzhou, Shi’s subordinate commanders had already begun surrendering en masse.

The defense of Yangzhou itself proved disastrous. Shi Kefa rejected sound military advice, refusing to cut down trees that provided cover for attackers out of respect for a local family’s ancestral graves. When the Qing artillery arrived on April 24, the walls quickly collapsed under bombardment. The city fell the next day, with Shi Kefa captured and executed after refusing to surrender.

The Yangzhou Massacre and Its Legacy

Following the city’s capture, Dodo ordered a horrific punishment – the systematic slaughter of Yangzhou’s inhabitants. The infamous “Ten Days of Yangzhou” saw perhaps 80,000 killed, though historical accounts vary. Wang Xiuchu’s contemporary account, The Ten Days’ Massacre in Yangzhou, provides chilling details of the atrocities. This brutal demonstration served as a warning to other cities considering resistance.

Despite his military failures, Shi Kefa became a powerful symbol of Ming loyalism. His martyrdom inspired later resistance movements, including a 1648 uprising where rebels claimed to fight under his banner. The contrast between his symbolic importance and actual incompetence highlights the complex nature of historical memory.

The Systemic Failure of Ming Defense

The rapid collapse of Ming defenses revealed deeper institutional failures. The five major Ming military commands, which had dominated the Hongguang court, surrendered almost without exception. Their commanders – including Li Chengdong, Li Benshen, and Jin Shenghuan – would later become some of the Qing’s most effective generals against remaining Ming resistance.

This wholesale defection demonstrated how the Ming’s reliance on semi-independent warlords undermined national defense. These commanders, more concerned with personal power than national survival, readily switched allegiances when the Qing appeared stronger. The Hongguang regime’s fatal weakness lay not in lack of military resources, but in its inability to foster genuine loyalty among its defenders.

Historical Assessment and Memory

The fall of Yangzhou marked a turning point in the Ming-Qing transition. While Shi Kefa’s personal courage deserves recognition, his strategic failures significantly contributed to the Southern Ming’s collapse. Contemporary observers like Tan Qian noted his inferior performance compared to earlier defenders like Li Tingzhi during the Song dynasty.

The event’s legacy remains contested. Qing sources emphasize the necessity of their harsh measures, while Ming loyalists memorialized Shi Kefa’s sacrifice. This duality reflects the complex process through which historical narratives form – where military realities become intertwined with political symbolism and cultural memory. The Yangzhou tragedy ultimately illustrates both the human cost of dynastic transition and the enduring power of resistance narratives in shaping historical understanding.