The Collapse of Ming Loyalist Resistance in Yunnan

By 1659, the Qing dynasty had consolidated control over most of China following their victory over the Ming loyalists. The Yongli Emperor, Zhu Youlang, last claimant to the Ming throne, fled with his court into the rugged borderlands of Yunnan province before seeking refuge in Burma (modern Myanmar). This marked the final chapter in the decades-long struggle between the conquering Manchu Qing forces and the remnants of the Ming dynasty.

The Qing conquest of Yunnan had been arduous. Military commanders like Luo Tuo, Duo Ni, and Zhao Butai faced immense logistical challenges—scarce supplies, devastated landscapes, and troops suffering from tropical diseases. Reluctant to pursue the Yongli Emperor deeper into Burma’s treacherous terrain, these Manchu generals petitioned to return to Beijing, leaving the final campaign to Han Chinese forces under the infamous defector Wu Sangui, now the Prince Who Pacifies the West (平西王).

Wu Sangui’s Strategic Gambit

Wu Sangui, having betrayed the Ming decades earlier at Shanhai Pass, now sought to secure his power base in Yunnan. He recognized that as long as the Yongli Emperor lived, Ming loyalists across southern China would continue resisting Qing rule. In a pivotal 1660 memorial to the Qing court, Wu outlined his “Three Threats and Two Difficulties” argument:

1. The Threat at the Gates – If Li Dingguo and Bai Wenxuan, Ming generals still active in Burma, regrouped, they could launch border raids.
2. The Threat Within – Indigenous chieftains (tusi) might revolt if inspired by Yongli’s symbolic authority.
3. The Hidden Threat – Surrendered Ming troops could defect if Yongli remained at large.

Wu also emphasized the economic strain of prolonged military occupation. His solution: a decisive strike into Burma to eliminate the Ming court once and for all. The Qing court, initially hesitant due to costs, eventually approved his plan in 1661, allocating 3.3 million taels of silver for the campaign.

The Tragedy of the Yongli Court in Burma

The Yongli Emperor’s exile in Burma was fraught with peril. Initially granted asylum by King Pindale, his position deteriorated after a 1661 coup brought Pindale’s brother, Pye Min, to power. The new regime, wary of antagonizing the Qing, turned against the Ming refugees.

On July 18, 1661, Burmese officials lured Yongli’s courtiers to a supposed oath-swearing ceremony at the Dubo Yan Pagoda. In a massacre later known as the “Incident of the Oath Water” (咒水之难), 3,000 Burmese troops slaughtered nearly all of Yongli’s officials, including the nobleman Mu Tianbo, who died fighting back. The emperor, now isolated, was imprisoned with his family in a squalid hut.

The Endgame: Betrayal and Execution

With Ming resistance collapsing, Burma’s king sought to ingratiate himself with the Qing. In December 1661, he handed Yongli over to Wu Sangui’s forces. The emperor was transported back to Kunming, where in June 1662, Wu personally supervised his execution by strangulation—a grim finale to the Southern Ming’s struggle.

Legacy and Historical Reflections

The fall of the Yongli Emperor marked the definitive end of Ming resistance. For the Qing, it solidified control over China’s southwestern frontier. For Wu Sangui, however, his ruthless campaign sowed seeds of future rebellion; his later revolt against the Qing in 1673 was undermined by his own earlier actions against the Ming.

The episode also revealed the precariousness of exile politics. Burma’s betrayal underscored how Southeast Asian kingdoms balanced relations with China’s competing regimes. Today, Yongli’s flight remains a poignant tale of loyalty, survival, and the brutal realities of dynastic transition.