A Throne Controlled by Eunuchs

The death of Emperor Wenzong in 840 marked the culmination of years of political decay under the dominance of palace eunuchs. The infamous Sweet Dew Incident—a failed coup against the eunuchs—had occurred four years earlier with Wenzong’s tacit approval, earning him the lasting hatred of the powerful eunuch Qiu Shiliang. Wenzong, humiliated by his subjugation to these “household slaves,” spent his final years in depression, rarely attending court. His illness and eventual demise were widely seen as consequences of this despair.

With Wenzong’s designated heir, Crown Prince Li Yong, already dead, succession became contentious. The eunuchs, unwilling to accept the 15-year-old Li Chengmei (son of Wenzong’s brother Emperor Jingzong) as emperor, deposed him under the pretext of his youth. Instead, they installed Wenzong’s younger brother, Li Chan, as Emperor Wuzong. This move underscored the eunuchs’ iron grip on imperial succession—only a ruler they personally elevated could secure their power.

The Collapse of the Uighur Khaganate

The year of Wuzong’s ascension also witnessed the sudden collapse of the Uighur Khaganate, a nomadic empire that had long been both ally and adversary to the Tang. Internal strife led a Uighur general to invite the Kirghiz, a Turkic steppe people, to invade. Their capital, Ordu-Baliq in northern Mongolia, fell, forcing mass Uighur migrations.

One group settled in the Tarim Basin, transforming the region’s demographics. Previously dominated by Iranian peoples, the area became Turkic-majority—later known as Turkestan. The Uighurs, originally adherents of Manichaeism and Buddhism, gradually converted to Islam through contact with West Asia. Their exodus relieved the Tang of a persistent northern threat, coinciding with the decline of another rival, Tibet.

The Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution

Emperor Wuzong’s reign (840–846) became infamous for its radical Daoist-inspired policies, particularly the Huichang Persecution—the largest anti-Buddhist campaign in Chinese history. Influenced by the Daoist mystic Zhao Guizhen, Wuzong framed Buddhism as a drain on state resources. Monasteries, exempt from taxation, controlled vast lands and enslaved thousands. By 845, the state had:
– Destroyed 4,600 major temples and 40,000 smaller shrines.
– Defrocked 260,500 monks and nuns.
– Confiscated millions of acres of land and freed 150,000 monastery slaves.

The persecution extended to other foreign religions—Nestorian Christianity, Zoroastrianism, and Manichaeism—reflecting a broader nationalist turn in Tang policy. Yet Wuzong’s death in 846, allegedly from Daoist elixir poisoning, was seen by Buddhists as divine retribution. His successor, Emperor Xuanzong, promptly reversed the anti-Buddhist edicts and executed Zhao Guizhen.

The Unraveling of the Tang

Xuanzong’s reign (846–859) saw the final flare-up of the Niu-Li Factional Struggles, but the Tang’s decline was irreversible. By the 850s, rebellions erupted across the empire:
– Military Mutinies: Soldiers, unpaid and overworked, revolted against corrupt provincial governors (jiedushi).
– Popular Uprisings: Peasant revolts, like the 859–860 rebellion led by salt smuggler Qiu Fu in Zhejiang, drew tens of thousands.
– The Salt and Tea Crisis: Government monopolies inflated prices, spawning black markets. “Salt bandits” like Wang Xianzhi and Huang Chao—future leaders of the cataclysmic Huang Chao Rebellion (874–884)—gained mass support by selling affordable salt.

The Tang’s reliance on foreign troops (e.g., the Shatuo Turks) to quash rebellions like Pang Xun’s 868 uprising only hastened its disintegration. By 907, the dynasty formally collapsed, ending three centuries of rule.

Legacy: Why the Tang Fell

The Tang’s demise was a paradox:
1. External Threats Vanished: With the Uighurs and Tibet weakened, internal discipline eroded.
2. Economic Mismanagement: Corruption, tax evasion by monastic estates, and oppressive monopolies alienated the populace.
3. Militarized Provinces: The jiedushi system, designed to protect borders, birthed warlordism.

Yet the Tang’s cultural legacy endured. Its cosmopolitanism—evident in Silk Road trade, religious diversity, and poetry—left an indelible mark on East Asia. The dynasty’s fall became a cautionary tale about the perils of court intrigue, economic inequality, and overcentralized power—themes that resonate even today.