The Collapse of Yuan Power and the Rise of Regional Warlords

By the late 1360s, the Yuan Dynasty, established by the Mongol conquerors nearly a century earlier, had lost its grip on northern China. The central government in Beijing was a hollow shell, its authority fractured between two powerful warlords: Köke Temür (扩廓帖木儿) and Bolod Temür (孛罗帖木儿). Meanwhile, in the south, Zhu Yuanzhang—a former peasant monk turned rebel leader—was consolidating his power and preparing for the final push to reclaim northern China from Mongol rule.

Zhu’s military advisors, including famed generals like Xu Da and Chang Yuchun, advocated a swift “decapitation strike” on Beijing to topple the Yuan leadership. But Zhu, ever the strategist, recalled the nine-word maxim of his advisors Liu Bowen and Zhu Sheng: “Store grain widely, build walls high, and proclaim kingship slowly.” This philosophy had guided his rise from obscurity to dominance, and he would apply it once more in his northern campaign.

The Four-Phase Conquest: A Masterstroke of Strategy

Rejecting the impulsive approach of his generals, Zhu devised a meticulous four-stage plan:

1. Securing Shandong – Removing Beijing’s eastern shield.
2. Conquering Henan – Destroying the capital’s southern defenses.
3. Capturing Beijing – Isolating the Yuan heartland.
4. Subduing Shanxi and Shaanxi – Eliminating remaining Mongol strongholds.

This methodical approach ensured that each conquered region was fully pacified before moving forward, preventing overextension. Zhu framed his campaign as a righteous mission, declaring: “I am the liberator, here to expel the barbarians and restore China’s glory!”

The Northern Expedition Unfolds

### Phase One: The Fall of Shandong (1367–1368)
Xu Da’s forces swept through Shandong, capturing key cities like Yizhou (modern Qingzhou) and Dongchang by early 1368. With the province secured, Zhu felt confident enough to proclaim himself emperor, founding the Ming Dynasty.

### Phase Two: The Henan Campaign (1368)
While Xu Da pressed north, Deng Yu’s army seized Nanyang, and Feng Sheng’s troops secured Tong Pass, cutting off Yuan reinforcements. The pivotal Battle of Luoyang saw Xu Da defeat Köke Temür’s forces, cementing Ming control over Henan.

### Phase Three: The March on Beijing (1368)
In a lightning advance, Xu Da’s 250,000-strong army crossed the Yellow River, bypassing Yuan defenses. By August 1368, they reached Tongzhou, just outside Beijing. To their surprise, the Yuan emperor Toghon Temür had already fled north with his court, leaving the capital undefended. On August 2, Ming troops entered Beijing unopposed, marking the Yuan Dynasty’s symbolic end.

### Phase Four: Mopping Up the North (1368–1372)
Despite losing Beijing, Mongol remnants under Köke Temür regrouped in Shanxi and Shaanxi. Xu Da’s campaigns in 1369–1370 shattered their resistance, though Köke escaped to the steppes, where he continued harassing Ming borders. Meanwhile, Li Wenzhong’s raid on Yingchang (1370) forced the Yuan court further into Mongolia, where they persisted as the “Northern Yuan.”

Cultural and Political Aftermath

### The Three-Capital Experiment
Flush with victory, Zhu instituted an unusual administrative system: Nanjing as the southern capital, Kaifeng (formerly Bianliang) as the northern capital, and his hometown of Linhao as a symbolic “central capital.” This arrangement reflected both practical governance and Zhu’s sentimental ties to his roots.

### The Rise of Ming Autocracy
Zhu’s distrust of bureaucrats soon manifested. He installed Yang Xian, a spymaster from his intelligence network, to monitor chancellor Li Shanchang—a move that sparked factional strife between Anhui and Zhejiang cliques. This foreshadowed the Ming’s infamous secret police, the Jinyiwei (锦衣卫), established in 1382.

Legacy: The End of Mongol Rule and Ming’s Steppe Dilemma

Though Zhu had expelled the Mongols from China proper, the Northern Yuan remained a persistent threat. His failed 1372 expedition to Karakorum proved that steppe warfare favored nomadic cavalry over Ming infantry. Pragmatically, Zhu shifted to a defensive stance, fortifying the Great Wall and prioritizing internal stability—a policy that defined early Ming rule.

By 1372, the Ming Dynasty controlled China’s heartland, but its relationship with the northern nomads remained unresolved. Zhu’s conquests had ended foreign rule, yet the empire’s northern frontier would remain a strategic challenge for centuries to come. His blend of patience, pragmatism, and ruthless efficiency not only toppled the Yuan but laid the foundations for one of China’s most enduring dynasties.