The Seeds of Decline: Wu’s Political Fractures

The Eastern Wu dynasty, one of the Three Kingdoms, met its dramatic end in 280 CE after decades of internal decay and external pressure. But the roots of its downfall stretched back to the reign of its founder, Sun Quan (r. 229–252). The infamous “Dispute Between Two Palaces” (二宫之争) in the 240s–250s marked a turning point. When Crown Prince Sun Deng died in 241, Sun Quan’s favoritism toward rival princes Sun He and Sun Ba ignited a decade-long factional war that split the court. Key ministers like Lu Xun died from political stress, while purges decimated the bureaucracy.

Sun Quan’s death in 252 left a child emperor, Sun Liang, under regents from both factions. The power struggle turned lethal when Grand General Zhuge Ke, leader of the former Crown Prince faction, executed rival Sun Hong in a preemptive strike. Zhuge’s disastrous 253 invasion of Wei—an attempt to consolidate power through military victory—ended in failure and his assassination by Sun Jun of the opposing faction.

The Descent into Tyranny

The subsequent reigns of Sun Jun (253–256) and his cousin Sun Chen (256–258) saw escalating brutality, but neither matched the infamy of Sun Hao (r. 264–280). Historical records depict Wu’s last emperor as a paranoid sadist:

– He hosted drunken court gatherings where attendees were forced to inform on each other; punishments like flaying and eye-gouging were meted out on the spot.
– When official He Shao suffered a stroke and couldn’t speak, Sun Hao had him tortured, beheaded, and his skull burned—suspecting feigned illness.
– His reign mirrored the late Shang dynasty’s collapse, with officials like Lu Kang (son of Lu Xun) pleading for defenses against Jin while being ignored.

This extreme violence reflected deeper instability. As historian Deng Ai observed, Wu’s regional powerholders operated semi-independently after Sun Quan’s death. Sun Hao’s atrocities were likely desperate attempts to reassert control over a fragmenting state.

Jin’s Calculated Conquest

While Wu rotted internally, Jin’s Emperor Sima Yan (r. 266–290) faced his own political hurdles in launching unification. Key figures shaped the campaign:

Yang Hu (羊祜): The architect of Jin’s southern strategy, he spent a decade preparing from his Xiangyang base. His 276 memorial outlined Wu’s vulnerabilities:
1. Jin’s superiority after conquering Shu’s impregnable terrain
2. The unsustainable cost of maintaining defenses
3. A multi-pronged invasion plan leveraging Sichuan’s waterways

Wang Jun (王濬): The eccentric 70-year-old admiral who built Sichuan’s fleet. Local ballads prophesied an “A’Tong” (his childhood name) leading a watery conquest. His psychological warfare included:
– Saving infant boys from infanticide in border regions (“Wang Jun’s Babies”)
– Propagating omens like his dream of “four knives” (interpreted as becoming Inspector of Yi Province)

Du Yu (杜预): Yang Hu’s successor who overcame court opposition with urgent memorials, warning delays would allow Wu to regroup.

The Final Campaign

Despite Yang Hu’s 278 death, his plan unfolded in 279–280:
1. Sichuan Theater: Wang Jun’s fleet destroyed riverine defenses with fire ships and floating barricades.
2. Central Front: Du Yu captured Jiangling, then raced Wang Jun to Jianye (Nanjing).
3. Political Theater: Factional infighting nearly aborted the invasion until Sima Yan’s furious intervention.

Sun Hao surrendered on March 31, 280, famously claiming: “I’ve waited for Your Majesty’s arrival these many years.” The conquest was shockingly swift—just four months—but its planning had taken a generation.

Legacy: Why Wu Fell

1. Institutional Decay: The “Two Palaces” dispute created a culture of purges that left Wu without stable leadership.
2. Strategic Myopia: Ignoring warnings about Jin’s Sichuan shipbuilding (as early as 272) proved fatal.
3. Jin’s Political Will: Sima Yan overcame internal resistance by framing unification as essential to legitimizing his rule post-Sima Yi’s coups.

Modern parallels abound: Wu’s collapse exemplifies how factionalism and authoritarian brutality erode state capacity—a lesson transcending dynasties. Meanwhile, Jin’s victory demonstrated that even flawed leaders (Sima Yan’s later reign saw the disastrous War of the Eight Princes) can achieve historic feats when bureaucracy and military preparation align.

The conquest also birthed enduring cultural motifs, from Wang Jun’s riverine tactics inspiring later naval warfare to Sun Hao becoming shorthand for tyrannical incompetence. As Yang Hu lamented before dying: “Opportunities given by heaven, if not seized, become later regrets”—a maxim for empires and individuals alike.