The Fractured Landscape of Ancient China

The early 8th century BCE presented a complex political landscape in what we now call ancient China. The Zhou Dynasty, once a powerful centralized monarchy, had entered its Eastern Zhou phase marked by diminished royal authority and the rise of competing feudal states. This period, known as the Spring and Autumn period, witnessed constant shifting alliances, territorial disputes, and strategic maneuvering among various states vying for influence and territory.

Among these states, Qi, Lu, and Zheng emerged as significant powers, each with their own ambitions and strategic considerations. The state of Xu, though smaller in size and influence, occupied territory of strategic importance, making it a target for its more powerful neighbors. The year 712 BCE would prove decisive for Xu, as three powerful neighbors would converge upon it in a coordinated military action that would demonstrate both the brutality and sophistication of interstate relations during this fascinating historical period.

The Military Campaign Against Xu

In the autumn of 712 BCE, a coordinated military campaign unfolded as forces from Qi, Lu, and Zheng advanced toward the state of Xu. The timing was strategic—harvest season had passed, allowing rulers to mobilize agricultural workers as soldiers without compromising food production. The three states had formed a temporary alliance, united by their shared interest in subduing Xu, though each had different motivations and expectations regarding the outcome.

The siege of the Xu capital began on the first day of the seventh month according to the lunar calendar. The assault was characterized by both heroism and treachery, as recorded in historical accounts. The battle reached its climax when Ying Kaoshu, a commander from Zheng, seized the opportunity to lead the charge by grabbing his ruler’s distinctive banner, known as the Mao Hu, and scaling the city walls. His bravery, however, was met with betrayal when another Zheng commander, Zidu, shot him from below, causing him to fall to his death.

This act of treachery did not halt the assault. Another Zheng officer, Xia Shuying, took up the same banner and successfully reached the top of the walls. Waving the banner in all directions, he shouted that their ruler had ascended the walls, boosting the morale of the attacking forces and causing confusion among the defenders. By the third day of the assault, the combined forces had breached the defenses, and the Zheng army entered the city. The ruler of Xu, Duke Zhuang, fled to the state of Wei, seeking sanctuary from the invasion that had overrun his territory.

The Diplomatic Aftermath and Territorial Disposition

Following the successful military campaign, an intriguing diplomatic exchange occurred among the victors. The ruler of Qi, Duke Xi, initially offered control of the conquered Xu territory to the ruler of Lu, Duke Yin. This gesture followed established protocols where the most senior or respected among allies would be offered the spoils of victory. Duke Yin, however, demurred, citing the original justification for the campaign—that Xu had failed in its obligations to the feudal system—and noting that since Xu had now been punished, he could not in good conscience accept the territory.

This refusal was both diplomatically astute and strategically calculated. By declining the offer, Duke Yin avoided potential conflicts with his allies while maintaining the moral high ground. The territory then passed to Zheng, whose ruler, Duke Zhuang, now faced the complex task of administering conquered territory without appearing as a mere aggressor, all while maintaining relationships with his powerful allies.

Duke Zhuang of Zheng demonstrated remarkable political acumen in his handling of the newly acquired territory. Rather than annexing Xu outright or installing a puppet ruler, he devised a sophisticated arrangement that balanced practical control with diplomatic propriety. He appointed Xu Shu, the brother of the deposed Xu ruler, to administer the eastern portion of Xu territory, assisted by a Xu official named Baili. To ensure Zheng’s interests were protected, he assigned his own minister, Gongsun Huo, to supervise the administration.

The Masterful Address to the Administrators

The most remarkable aspect of this historical episode lies in the address delivered by Duke Zhuang to the newly appointed administrators. This speech represents a masterpiece of political rhetoric, combining humility, strategic foresight, and diplomatic subtlety. Duke Zhuang began by attributing the fall of Xu to divine will rather than his own military prowess, stating that heaven had brought misfortune upon Xu and that the gods were dissatisfied with its ruler, using Zheng merely as the instrument of this divine punishment.

He further demonstrated humility by referencing his own domestic challenges, particularly his strained relationship with his brother, whom he acknowledged he could not keep content within his own state. This admission served multiple purposes: it presented him as self-aware and humble, it made his claim of not seeking to permanently possess Xu more credible, and it established common ground with the Xu officials who had just witnessed their own state’s leadership fail.

The core of his address outlined a visionary approach to interstate relations. He expressed hope that if he himself died a natural death, heaven might relent and allow the Xu leadership to restore their sovereignty. He proposed that should this occur, Zheng would seek to maintain a relationship with Xu based on mutual respect and historical connections, likening it to the bonds between relatives linked by marriage.

Most importantly, he articulated the strategic rationale behind his arrangements: to prevent other states from moving into the territory and challenging Zheng’s interests. He acknowledged that his primary concern was securing Zheng’s borders, while simultaneously providing stable governance for the people of Xu. This candid admission of self-interest, couched in concern for the Xu population, created a foundation of pragmatic honesty upon which the new administration could build.

Cultural and Social Implications

The conquest of Xu and its subsequent administration reflected broader social and cultural patterns of the Spring and Autumn period. The careful attention to ritual propriety, even in the context of military conquest, demonstrated the enduring importance of Zhou feudal conventions. States might compete for power and territory, but they generally maintained the formal structures of the feudal system, justifying their actions through appeals to tradition, divine will, and mutual obligation.

The episode also illustrates the complex relationship between military power and diplomatic finesse during this era. Successful states needed both strong armies and skilled diplomats who could articulate their actions in terms that acknowledged shared values and expectations. Duke Zhuang’s address perfectly exemplifies this combination of hard power and soft persuasion that characterized effective leadership during this period.

Socially, the treatment of conquered territories had significant implications for population stability and economic productivity. By maintaining local administrators and allowing a degree of autonomy, Duke Zhuang minimized disruption to agricultural production and social structures. This approach contrasted with more brutal methods of conquest that could lead to population displacement, economic collapse, and long-term resentment.

Legacy and Historical Significance

The events of 712 BCE and Duke Zhuang’s handling of the Xu conquest had lasting implications for Chinese political philosophy and statecraft. The address to the administrators became celebrated in Chinese historical and literary tradition as a model of diplomatic language—subtle, sophisticated, and strategically brilliant. It demonstrated how power could be exercised while maintaining the forms of propriety and mutual obligation that underpinned the feudal system.

This episode also foreshadowed the increasing sophistication of interstate relations during the Spring and Autumn period. As states competed for influence, they developed more complex methods of exercising control that went beyond simple military domination. The creation of administrative arrangements that balanced direct control with nominal autonomy became a model for managing conquered territories throughout Chinese history.

The historical record of these events, preserved in the Zuo Zhuan commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals, provides invaluable insight into the political thinking of the time. The careful documentation of Duke Zhuang’s words suggests that contemporaries recognized the exceptional quality of his diplomatic approach. Later generations of Chinese statesmen would study this episode as an example of how to exercise power with restraint and strategic foresight.

From a modern perspective, the conquest of Xu and its aftermath offers fascinating insights into the early development of realpolitik in Chinese history. Duke Zhuang’s approach combined pragmatic power considerations with ideological justification in a manner that would characterize Chinese statecraft for centuries to come. The episode remains a powerful example of how military success must be followed by political wisdom to achieve lasting strategic advantages.

The story of Xu’s conquest ultimately transcends its historical specifics to offer timeless lessons about power, diplomacy, and governance. It reminds us that the most effective exercise of power often involves restraint, that successful leadership requires both strength and subtlety, and that the aftermath of conflict presents challenges as complex as the conflict itself. These insights, so clearly demonstrated in the events of 712 BCE, continue to resonate through the centuries, reminding us of the enduring complexities of interstate relations and the art of governance.