The Final Elimination of Rival Warlords

By late 1367, Zhu Yuanzhang stood unchallenged as the dominant power in China’s fractured landscape. The dramatic two-month siege ending in Zhang Shicheng’s defeat marked the conclusion of a decades-long power struggle among rebel factions that had toppled the Yuan Dynasty. Unlike his rivals—Chen Youliang, who fell at Lake Poyang, or the defiant Zhang who chose suicide over surrender—Zhu now faced no credible opposition. Historians note the irony: while figures like Liu Futong had borne the brunt of fighting the Mongols, Zhu systematically eliminated fellow Han rebels first, securing his base before confronting the Yuan.

Liu Bowen’s Controversial Appointment

In the aftermath, Zhu appointed his chief strategist Liu Bowen (Liu Ji) as Vice Minister of the Censorate—a role overseeing disciplinary investigations. The promotion was conspicuously modest given Liu’s contributions: architect of the “Lure Chen, Isolate Zhang” strategy and designer of the decisive northern campaign. More puzzling was Liu’s superior—military general Tang He, whose civilian credentials paled beside Liu’s. This arrangement revealed Zhu’s priorities:

– Symbolic Subordination: By placing a revered scholar under a general, Zhu signaled military primacy during ongoing campaigns.
– Controlled Reform: The Censorate became Zhu’s tool to rein in wartime excesses among his generals, with Liu as the uncompromising enforcer.

Contemporary accounts describe Liu’s indifference to rank, yet his tenure saw ruthless enforcement. When Zhu imposed punitive taxes on former Zhang territories, Liu alone secured exemptions for his home district of Qingtian—a rare concession highlighting their complex dynamic.

The Northern Expedition: A Strategic Masterpiece

Liu’s operational genius shone in the 1367–68 northern campaign, which shattered historical precedents. Previous southern regimes had failed to conquer the north, but Liu’s phased approach—capturing Shandong (Yuan’s “shield”), then Hebei (“fence”), and finally blockading Tong Pass (“threshold”)—left the Yuan capital Dadu isolated. Key innovations:

1. Adaptive Logistics: Learning from Liu Futong’s failed 1358 blitz toward Dadu, Liu emphasized securing supply lines.
2. Psychological Warfare: Proclamations framed the war as a Han liberation, co-opting anti-Mongol sentiment.

By January 1368, Shandong fell, and Zhu proclaimed the Ming Dynasty. Yet Liu’s role remained paradoxical—celebrated in edicts like the “Censorate Proclamation” but denied high ministerial office.

The Birth of the Ming: Control Over Ideology

Zhu’s choice of “Ming” (明, brightness) as the dynastic name carried layered symbolism:

– Legitimacy: Rejecting associations with the Red Turban’s Millenarianism (despite Liu’s disdain for their Ming cult), Zhu linked “Ming” to classical I Ching cosmology, positioning himself as a Confucian restorer.
– Centralization: The new state was Zhu’s personal project. His “Great Pronouncements” later codified hyper-centralized rule, with household registration (lijia) tying peasants to land—a system Liu helped design despite advocating leniency.

The Military Revolution: The Weisuo System

Liu’s most enduring institutional contribution was the weisuo (guard-post) military system, implemented in 1368. Its hybrid structure addressed chronic weaknesses:

| Feature | Advantage | Long-Term Flaw |
|———————–|——————————————-|—————————————–|
| Self-sufficient farms | Reduced state military expenditure | Corruption as officers seized land |
| Hereditary service | Stable manpower | Declining combat readiness by 1400s |
| Separation of command | Prevented warlordism | Poor coordination in crises |

Though adapted from Yuan models, the system’s scale was unprecedented, fielding 3 million troops at its peak. Yet Liu’s warning—”Institutions decay without virtuous men”—proved prophetic as officer corruption eroded its effectiveness.

The Fractured Partnership

By mid-1368, tensions emerged. Liu’s rigid idealism clashed with Zhu’s transactional ruthlessness:

– Personality Divide: Liu saw law as a means to justice; Zhu wielded it as a weapon. Their divergence peaked when Liu proposed brief, intense anti-corruption campaigns versus Zhu’s preference for perpetual terror.
– The Unraveling: When Liu opposed harsh taxes, Zhu exempted Qingtian—not from principle, but to showcase his magnanimity. The Censorate Proclamation praised Liu’s integrity while subtly asserting Zhu’s ultimate authority: “Your plans were wise, but my judgment made them succeed.”

Legacy: The Paradox of Founding Myths

The Ming’s founding narrative obscures contradictions:

– Selective Heroism: Zhu memorialized rivals like Fang Guozhen (whom Liu despised) to portray clemency, even as he purged early allies.
– Liu’s Posthumous Rise: Though sidelined in life, Liu became a folk hero—a “divine strategist” immortalized in Ming lore, his realism sanitized into legend.

For modern readers, this epoch offers cautionary insights into power: Zhu’s brilliance in state-building was inseparable from his brutality, while Liu’s ideals were inevitably instrumentalized. The Ming’s “golden age” was thus forged in calculated betrayals and uneasy compromises—a testament to how revolutions consume their architects.