The Rise of Rival Warlords in Yuan China’s Twilight

As the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368) crumbled under corruption and rebellion, regional warlords carved out their own domains. Among them, Zhu Yuanzhang—later the Hongwu Emperor—and Zhang Shicheng emerged as two of the most formidable contenders. Zhang, a former salt smuggler turned rebel leader, controlled the prosperous Jiangnan region with its capital at Suzhou. Zhu, based in Nanjing, saw Zhang as the final obstacle to dominance in southern China before confronting the Yuan remnants in the north.

By 1365, Zhu’s strategist Liu Bowen devised a meticulous plan to dismantle Zhang’s power. The campaign would unfold in phases, starting with the conquest of Zhang’s territories north of the Yangtze.

The First Blows: Xu Da’s Lightning Campaign

On October 17, 1365 (lunar calendar), Zhu’s general Xu Da crossed the Yangtze and swept through Zhang’s Huaidong territories. Within days, Xu captured Haian and besieged Taizhou. Zhang’s forces, though tenacious, buckled under Xu’s relentless assaults.

Zhang attempted a rescue mission led by his trusted general Wang Cheng, but Xu ambushed the reinforcements, annihilating them and capturing Wang. Desperate, Zhang tried diversionary tactics—stationing a fleet at Fanchaigang and patrolling near Gushan to feign an attack on Zhu’s river bases. Liu Bowen saw through the ruse, advising Zhu to ignore it. By late November, Taizhou fell, and Xu pressed toward Xinghua and Gaoyou.

Zhang’s Failed Gambits and Psychological Blows

Zhang launched counteroffensives, attacking Yixing, Anji, and Jiangyin to force Xu’s withdrawal. Yet each move backfired. At Yixing, Xu’s forces crushed Zhang’s army before they even reached the city walls. A second relief force sent to Gaoyou mysteriously disbanded out of sheer terror.

By early 1366, Zhang’s third attempt—a combined naval-land assault on Jiangyin—collapsed when Zhu personally led reinforcements. Zhang’s fleet, outmaneuvered, abandoned hundreds of ships in a humiliating retreat. Meanwhile, Xu captured Gaoyou, a city symbolic of Zhang’s early triumphs against the Yuan. Its loss left Zhang “stunned, muttering, ‘Even this is gone.'”

The Propaganda War: Zhu’s “Eight Crimes” Manifesto

With Zhang reeling, Zhu issued a scathing manifesto accusing him of:
1. Salt smuggling and rebellion.
2. Fake surrender to the Yuan and murdering officials.
3. Illegally proclaiming himself king in Zhexi.
4. Invading Zhu’s lands and repeated betrayals.
5. Withholding Jiangnan’s taxes from the Yuan.
6. Manipulating Yuan officials.
7. Executing Yuan loyalists as the dynasty collapsed.
8. Poaching Zhu’s generals and civilians.

Zhang, enraged, retorted that the charges were hypocritical—many applied equally to Zhu. The manifesto, likely drafted by former Yuan official Zhang Chang (who secretly loathed Zhu), was a masterpiece of irony, subtly critiquing Zhu’s own ruthlessness.

The Cultural and Strategic Legacy

The campaign showcased:
– Liu Bowen’s Genius: His phased strategy isolated Zhang, preventing coordinated resistance.
– Xu Da’s Tactical Brilliance: Mastery of siege warfare and ambushes.
– Propaganda as Weapon: Zhu’s manifesto, despite its contradictions, framed Zhang as a traitor to both Yuan legitimacy and popular rule.

Zhang’s defeat marked the end of Jiangnan’s resistance. By 1367, Zhu turned north, toppling the Yuan and founding the Ming Dynasty. Yet the campaign’s darker themes—betrayal, psychological warfare, and the malleability of “legitimacy”—foreshadowed Zhu’s tyrannical reign.

Modern Echoes: Power and Narrative

Zhu’s victory underscores a timeless lesson: control of narrative often decides history’s winners. His smear campaign against Zhang, however flawed, painted rebellion as order and ambition as virtue—a tactic echoing in modern politics. Meanwhile, Zhang Chang’s subversive manifesto-writing reveals how bureaucracy can weaponize even dissent.

The 1365–66 war wasn’t just a military conquest; it was a blueprint for how dynasties—and dictators—are built.