The Rise of Two Military Titans in a Divided China

The mid-17th century witnessed the violent transition from Ming to Qing rule, a period where loyalties shifted like coastal tides. Against this backdrop emerged two formidable naval commanders whose personal clash would reshape history: Shi Lang, the brilliant but temperamental strategist, and Zheng Chenggong (Koxinga), the charismatic Ming loyalist. Both men cut their teeth during the chaotic final years of the Ming Dynasty, when peasant rebellions and Manchu invasions tore apart the social fabric.

Shi Lang’s early career exemplified the frustrations of unrecognized talent. After serving under scholar-general Huang Daozhou in failed campaigns to rescue Jiangxi, his tactical advice went unheeded. His subsequent defection to the Qing brought little glory—stationed under Li Chengdong in Guangdong, he faced constant marginalization. When Ming loyalists briefly retook Guangdong in 1648, Shi Lang saw an opportunity with Zheng Chenggong’s rising maritime force.

Zheng, the son of pirate-merchant Zheng Zhilong, had built a formidable navy that became the last hope for Ming resistance after the 1644 fall of Beijing. His forces controlled key coastal strongholds like Xiamen and Kinmen, launching daring raids against Qing positions. Yet Zheng’s leadership style harbored fatal flaws—while inspiring loyalty in many, his intolerance for dissent and inability to harness strong personalities would prove costly.

The Powder Keg of Xiamen: Escalating Tensions

The cracks in the Shi-Zheng alliance appeared during the 1651 defense of Xiamen Island. As Qing forces launched a surprise attack, Shi Lang led a desperate countercharge with mere dozens of troops, buying crucial time for Zheng’s forces to regroup. Zheng awarded him 200 taels of silver for this valor—a hollow gesture, as he simultaneously stripped Shi Lang of his military command.

This pattern repeated when Shi Lang warned about vulnerabilities in Zheng’s westward campaign strategy. Rather than heed the advice (later proven correct), Zheng punished the messenger by fully removing Shi Lang’s authority. The final insult came upon Zheng’s return to Xiamen: not only was Shi Lang denied reinstatement as Left Vanguard, but his former deputy Wan Li received promotion to Regional Commander. A simmering Shi Lang staged a theatrical protest—threatening to become a monk and shaving his head—but Zheng remained unmoved, offering only the chance to recruit a new vanguard unit.

The Breaking Point: The Execution That Changed History

The rupture crystallized around the fate of one man: Zeng De, a former officer under Zheng’s uncle Zheng Cai. After falling out of favor during the Longwu Emperor’s reign, Zeng De found himself under Shi Lang’s command. Seeing Shi Lang’s waning influence, Zeng De sought refuge in Zheng Chenggong’s inner circle—a move Shi Lang interpreted as both betrayal and careerism. In a brazen act of defiance, Shi Lang had Zeng De captured and executed despite Zheng’s direct order to spare him.

Modern analysis reveals why this proved unforgivable. Contemporary accounts misleadingly portrayed Zeng De as a mere deserter, but he was a veteran commander with deep ties to the Zheng family. By killing a high-ranking Zheng loyalist without trial, Shi Lang committed an unforgivable breach of military hierarchy. Zheng’s response was swift and brutal: Shi Lang’s brother Shi Xian was arrested, their father Shi Daxuan imprisoned, and the family compound surrounded.

Escape and Vengeance: The Making of a Qing Admiral

What followed reads like an adventure tale—Shi Lang escaped captivity (possibly with local assistance) and fled to Qing territory. Enraged, Zheng executed Shi Daxuan and Shi Xian in July 1651, cementing Shi Lang’s transformation into a Qing loyalist. This personal vendetta would have geopolitical consequences far beyond wounded pride.

Historians debate whether Zheng overreacted. His father Zheng Zhilong had famously defected to the Qing in 1646, making him sensitive to perceived betrayals. Yet the decision to execute Shi’s family members—standard practice for “traitorous” clans in Chinese jurisprudence—eliminated any chance of reconciliation. More critically, it gifted the Qing their most valuable naval asset.

The Ripple Effects: From Personal Feud to Geopolitical Shift

The consequences unfolded over decades. Under Kangxi Emperor’s shrewd mentorship, Shi Lang honed the Qing navy into a formidable force. His intimate knowledge of Zheng’s tactics proved devastating during the 1683 invasion of Taiwan, where he outmaneuvered Zheng’s successors. The Qing victory ended the Zheng family’s three-generation maritime empire and brought Taiwan under imperial administration for the first time.

Zheng Chenggong’s legacy as a Ming loyalist hero remains celebrated in China and Taiwan, but his failure to retain Shi Lang stands as a cautionary tale in leadership. Studies of military defections during the Ming-Qing transition reveal a pattern—talented officers frequently switched sides when denied recognition. The Kangxi Emperor later mastered the art of managing such personalities through a mix of autonomy and oversight, a lesson Zheng failed to learn.

Echoes in Modern Strategic Thought

This 17th-century drama holds surprising relevance. Military historians note parallels with contemporary talent retention challenges—whether in corporate settings or modern navies. Zheng’s insistence on absolute loyalty over meritocratic flexibility contrasts sharply with the Qing’s later ability to co-opt Ming holdouts. The Taiwan campaign also established enduring precedents about cross-strait military dynamics that scholars still analyze today.

Ultimately, the Shi-Zheng rupture reminds us that historical turning points often hinge on human factors as much as structural forces. A single execution, a moment of unchecked rage, and a daring escape reshaped the maritime balance of power in East Asia—proof that personality and circumstance can alter the tides of history.