The Aging Emperor’s Resolve

In the spring of 1424, at the age of 64, the Yongle Emperor of the Ming Dynasty felt the weight of years yet refused to yield to time. With the vigor of a ruler still driven by ambition, he appointed his 46-year-old son, Zhu Gaozhi, as regent to oversee the empire’s affairs in his absence. In April of that year, Yongle departed Beijing at the head of a military expedition, marching northward to confront the Mongol tribes. Though he could not have known the precise outcome, an intuition settled upon him—this would be his final campaign. For a monarch who had devoted much of his reign to military expansion and consolidation, the northern frontier represented both a threat and an obsession. His lifelong desire to secure the borders and assert Ming dominance now propelled him into one last effort, despite the physical toll of age and the strains of repeated campaigns.

A Legacy of Northern Expeditions

The Yongle Emperor’s reign was marked by an assertive foreign policy, particularly toward the Mongols. Between 1409 and 1424, he led five major expeditions into the northern steppes. The first, in 1409, aimed to punish Mongol tribes for raids along the border. The second, in 1414, targeted the Oirat Mongols and resulted in a significant, though not decisive, victory. The third campaign, in 1422, focused on defeating the Mongol leader Arughtai, who had been a persistent adversary. Just a year later, in 1423, Yongle embarked on his fourth expedition, departing in August. By September, Arughtai had been weakened by defeats at the hands of rival Mongol groups, and by November, the Ming army returned to the capital, having achieved a limited objective without a major confrontation. However, in early 1424, reports arrived that Arughtai had once again raided regions near Datong, prompting Yongle’s fateful decision to launch a fifth campaign.

The Toll of Endless Warfare

By 1424, the Ming military was stretched thin. Years of campaigning had drained resources, fatigued soldiers, and strained supply lines. The army allotted only five months to recuperate after the fourth expedition—a woefully insufficient period for recovery. Jin Youzi, a Grand Secretary of the Wenyuan Pavilion who accompanied the emperor, documented the campaign in his work Records of the Later Northern Expeditions. He described the troops as “exhausted midway,” a phrase that encapsulated not only the physical weariness of the soldiers but also the broader fatigue of an empire perpetually at war. The logistical challenges were immense: supplying a large army across vast distances, navigating harsh terrain, and maintaining morale amid uncertain objectives. The human cost extended beyond the battlefield, affecting conscripts, support personnel, and the economy of the northern provinces tasked with sustaining the war effort.

An Omen and a Change of Heart

As the army reached Kaiping, the emperor confided in his advisors Jin Youzi and Yang Rong about a recurring dream. In it, a divine being cautioned him about the value of compassionate rule and the preservation of life. This dream deeply unsettled Yongle, who had built his reputation on military might and decisive action. Yang and Jin, perceptive courtiers, understood the emperor’s unspoken doubts. They replied that while his intention to eliminate threats was noble, there was always a risk of unintended destruction—what they termed “shattering jade along with stone.” This metaphor resonated with Yongle, who immediately ordered the drafting of an edict offering clemency to Mongol tribes and signaling a withdrawal. This moment revealed a ruler grappling with the moral dimensions of power, perhaps sensing his own mortality and the legacy he would leave.

The Emperor’s Decline

On July 14, 1424, the army camped at Cuwei Gang. Inside his tent, the emperor sat slumped over a table, visibly weakened and dispirited. He asked Hai Shou, a minor eunuch official, how long it would take to return to the capital. Upon hearing the estimate—mid-August—Yongle nodded quietly. He then turned to Yang Rong and Jin Youzi, reflecting aloud that the crown prince had matured through years of administrative experience and was ready to assume full control of state affairs. Yongle expressed a desire to retire from the burdens of rule and enjoy a period of rest. This admission was striking for a monarch known for his hands-on governance and relentless energy. It signaled not only physical decline but also an emotional readiness to pass the torch.

Death at Yumu River

Three days later, the army encamped at Yumu River, in what is now part of Inner Mongolia. Here, the emperor recognized that his end was near. He issued a final decree, naming the crown prince as his successor and instructing officials to arrange his funeral according to the precedents set by the Hongwu Emperor, his father. That night, according to historical accounts, a large red star streaked across the sky, and the stars appeared to shake—an omen interpreted as marking the passing of a great ruler. The Yongle Emperor died on July 18, 1424. Fearing instability with the army far from the capital, Yang Rong, Jin Youzi, and the eunuch Ma Yun decided to conceal his death temporarily. They ordered the crafting of a tin coffin, had the craftsmen executed to ensure secrecy, and placed the coffin inside the imperial carriage. Throughout the return journey, the emperor’s routines were simulated—meals were delivered, orders issued in his name, and the illusion of normalcy maintained to prevent panic or rebellion.

Succession and a New Era

Yang Rong and Hai Shou rode ahead to Beijing, arriving on August 2 to deliver the news of the emperor’s death and the testament to the crown prince. Zhu Gaozhi was overcome with grief but swiftly assumed his responsibilities. He sent his 26-year-old son, the future Xuande Emperor, to meet the returning army and escort the coffin. On August 15, Zhu Gaozhi ascended the throne as the Hongxi Emperor, posthumously known as Emperor Renzong—the Benevolent Emperor. His accession marked a dramatic shift in governance, emphasizing compassion, reform, and a departure from the militaristic policies of his predecessors.

The Benevolent Reign of Hongxi

Emperor Renzong’s brief reign would become renowned for its humanity and reformist zeal. One of his first acts was to pardon the families of officials who had served the Jianwen Emperor—the predecessor overthrown by Yongle—and restore their confiscated properties. This gesture of reconciliation aimed to heal longstanding political divisions. Administratively, Renzong streamlined the bureaucracy, enforced retirement for officials over 70, and initiated fiscal reforms to reduce waste. He reinstated the honorary positions of “Three Dukes” and “Three Solitaries,” appointing trusted advisors like Yang Rong and Jin Youzi to these roles, signaling his commitment to scholarly governance. As the Jiajing-era historian Li Weizhen later noted, while the founding emperors had “won the empire on horseback,” Renzong understood that it could not be ruled that way.

Reforming Justice and Limiting Power

Renzong openly criticized the harsh legal practices of the Hongwu and Yongle eras. He expressed dismay over the abuse of power by institutions like the Imperial Guard and the Eastern Depot, which often bypassed due process. In a series of edicts, he asserted that law should prevent crime and guide people toward virtue, not serve as a tool for oppression. He ordered that all judicial decisions must strictly follow the legal code, and he created mechanisms to check imperial authority: if the emperor proposed extralegal punishments, judicial officials were required to petition against it repeatedly, and if fairness was not achieved, they were to enlist senior ministers to intervene collectively. He banned torture techniques such as flogging prisoners on the back and abolished castration as a penalty—making self-castration punishable as unfilial conduct. Except in cases of rebellion, familial imprisonment was prohibited. Moreover, he protected free speech by distinguishing between legitimate criticism and slander, ordering that those who reported wrongdoing should not be punished. These reforms reflected a profound belief that unjust laws created social fear and instability.

A Legacy Cut Short

Had Emperor Renzong’s reign lasted beyond its mere nine months, the Ming Dynasty might have undergone even more profound transformation. His policies suggested a movement toward a more humane and accountable government, with greater emphasis on civil administration over military expansion. His sudden death in 1425 cut short this vision, but his son, the Xuande Emperor, continued many of his reforms, sustaining a period known as the “Ren-Xuan Golden Age.” The Yongle Emperor’s final campaign, therefore, not only closed a chapter of aggressive expansionism but also set in motion a transition to governance rooted in compassion and principle—a legacy that would endure long after both emperors were gone.

Conclusion: The End of an Era

The last expedition of the Yongle Emperor symbolizes the complex interplay of ambition, mortality, and legacy. His death in the northern wilderness ended an epoch defined by martial achievement and territorial assertion, while the rise of Renzong ushered in an era of introspection and reform. Together, their stories highlight the enduring tensions between power and benevolence in the exercise of rule—a theme as relevant today as it was in the Ming Dynasty. Through the meticulous accounts of advisors like Jin Youzi and the reforms of Renzong, we glimpse not only the events of 1424 but also the evolving ideals of leadership that shaped one of China’s most dynamic dynasties.