Introduction: A Century-Long Rivalry Comes to a Close

In the mid-18th century, the Qing dynasty faced one of its most persistent and formidable adversaries: the Dzungar Khanate. This powerful Mongol confederation had long resisted Qing expansion into Central Asia, marking a century of conflict marked by fierce battles and shifting alliances. However, by 1755, a perfect storm of internal turmoil within the Dzungar realm and strategic Qing military campaigns led by Emperor Qianlong culminated in the decisive destruction of the Dzungar power. This article explores the dramatic final chapter of this historic struggle, shedding light on the complex interplay of disease, politics, and warfare that reshaped the region and laid the foundation for what would become modern Xinjiang.

Background: The Dzungar Khanate and Qing Ambitions

The Dzungar Khanate, a confederation of Oirat Mongol tribes, had emerged in the 17th century as a dominant force in Central Asia, controlling vast territories stretching from the Altai Mountains to parts of present-day Kazakhstan and Xinjiang. Their nomadic lifestyle, military prowess, and strategic location made them both a formidable adversary and a crucial player in the geopolitics of the region.

For the Qing dynasty, securing its western borders and expanding influence into Central Asia was a strategic imperative. The empire’s rulers—especially Kangxi, Yongzheng, and Qianlong—engaged in nearly continuous military campaigns against the Dzungars, seeking to end their raids and integrate the region into the Qing realm. These conflicts were not only about territorial control but also about establishing Qing hegemony over the Silk Road and the tributary system with Central Asian states.

The Catalyst: Smallpox and Internal Strife

The turning point for the Dzungar Khanate came with an outbreak of smallpox in 1745. Smallpox, an often devastating disease for nomadic peoples with little natural immunity, swept across the Dzungar grasslands with catastrophic effects. The epidemic did not discriminate, ultimately claiming the life of Galdan Tseren, the ruler of the Dzungars, which plunged the khanate into a brutal succession crisis.

From 1745 to 1752, rival factions within the Dzungar elite engaged in a protracted civil war. This internecine conflict severely weakened the khanate’s military and political cohesion. The prolonged fighting exhausted resources and morale, leaving the once-powerful confederation vulnerable to external threats.

In 1752, Dawaachi, the grandson of Galdan Tseren, emerged victorious and claimed the khanate’s leadership. Unlike his predecessors, Dawaachi was ambitious and sought to consolidate control by launching military campaigns across the Mongolian steppe. His aggressive posture alarmed many local chiefs, who, unable to resist his advances, turned to the Qing dynasty for assistance.

Qianlong’s Opportunity: The Qing Military Campaigns

Emperor Qianlong, ever watchful of developments on his empire’s frontiers, recognized the Dzungar civil war as an opportunity to finally subdue his longtime rivals. In 1755, he ordered a two-pronged military campaign against the Dzungars.

The campaign was led by two generals: Ban Di commanded the northern forces, and Yong Chang led the western troops. Their mission was to advance rapidly into Dzungar territory and capture the strategic city of Ili, a vital stronghold.

The Qing forces, benefiting from the Dzungar’s internal disarray and numerical depletion, advanced with remarkable speed and efficiency. Beginning their march in February, they achieved a decisive victory by May, capturing Ili and forcing Dawaachi to surrender. Rather than executing him, Qianlong extended clemency; Dawaachi was brought to Beijing, where he later died of illness.

The Rise and Fall of Amursana: From Ally to Rebel

Following the defeat of Dawaachi, Qianlong elevated Amursana, a prominent Dzungar noble, to the status of prince, granting him privileges akin to those of Qing royalty. This was intended to stabilize the region by integrating local elites into the imperial framework.

However, Amursana proved uncooperative. Refusing to don Qing official attire or accept imperial seals, he began amassing his own forces and adopting a rebellious stance. His actions signaled a direct challenge to Qing authority, undermining the fragile peace.

On August 29, 1755, Amursana launched a surprise attack on the Qing military garrison, resulting in the death of General Ban Di and the annihilation of 500 Qing soldiers. Despite the tactical success of this raid, it failed to shift the strategic balance, as such guerrilla tactics could not withstand the Qing’s superior resources and organization.

The Final Suppression: Annihilation of the Dzungars

By 1756, Qianlong had resolved to crush Amursana and the Dzungar resistance once and for all. He appointed Zhao Hui and Cherbu-danzhabu as commanders of the eastern and western forces, respectively, and mobilized elite troops from across the empire.

The Qing military campaign was swift and decisive. Within three months, they retook Ili and pushed the Dzungars into full retreat. Amursana, now fleeing, succumbed to smallpox during his escape and died, marking the definitive end of Dzungar military resistance.

The Harsh Aftermath: The Qing’s Policy of Extermination

Unlike earlier conflicts, the Qing response to the Dzungar rebellion after Amursana’s defeat was marked by unprecedented ruthlessness. Emperor Qianlong, convinced that the Dzungars were irredeemably treacherous and dangerous, ordered a policy of total extermination.

Imperial edicts from Qianlong’s reign frequently called for the complete destruction of the Dzungar people, stating that no survivors should remain. The Qing armies conducted organized and systematic massacres throughout the Dzungar territories, employing methods that ensured the near-total eradication of the population.

Historical accounts describe chilling scenes where Qing soldiers would command hidden Dzungar men to emerge under the pretense of surrender, only to execute them en masse. Entire villages were wiped out, and the once-vibrant nomadic society was decimated.

The combined effects of military slaughter and smallpox epidemics brought the Dzungar population to the brink of extinction. While a few survivors managed to persist, the Dzungar Khanate as a political and cultural entity was effectively erased from history.

Legacy: The Creation of Xinjiang and Imperial Consolidation

Following the destruction of the Dzungar Khanate, Emperor Qianlong took symbolic steps to cement Qing control over the region. He renamed the vast newly acquired territory “Xinjiang,” meaning “New Frontier,” signaling a new era of imperial governance.

To commemorate the victory, Qianlong ordered the erection of the “Stele of Pacification of the Dzungars and Ili,” which celebrated the Qing triumph and proclaimed the region’s integration into the empire.

With the fall of the Dzungars, Qing rule extended securely over lands south and north of the Tianshan Mountains, reinvigorating the empire’s influence in Central Asia. Tributary states in the region resumed diplomatic relations with the Qing court, evoking memories of the Tang dynasty’s historic dominance.

The Aftermath and Emerging Challenges

Despite Qianlong’s success, the region remained volatile. The Qing’s harsh policies sowed seeds of lingering resentment and instability. Moreover, the administrative challenges of governing a vast and culturally diverse frontier posed ongoing difficulties.

Shortly after the Dzungar campaigns, new uprisings emerged, testing Qing authority once again. Fortunately for the dynasty, Qianlong himself was able to personally oversee responses to these rebellions, reaffirming Qing dominance for the remainder of his reign.

Conclusion: The End of an Era and the Shaping of Modern Central Asia

The final confrontation between the Qing dynasty and the Dzungar Khanate was more than a mere military victory; it marked a profound transformation in the political and demographic landscape of Central Asia. The eradication of the Dzungars ended centuries of conflict and opened the door for Qing expansion and consolidation.

While the methods employed by Qianlong and his generals were brutal—even genocidal by modern standards—the campaign secured the Qing empire’s western borders and integrated Xinjiang into the Chinese state. The echoes of this dramatic history continue to shape the region’s identity and geopolitics to this day.

Understanding this episode provides valuable insights into imperial strategy, the challenges of frontier governance, and the complex dynamics between nomadic and sedentary civilizations. It stands as a vivid testament to the turbulent history that forged modern Central Asia.