The Historical Backdrop of the 1898 Reforms

The late 19th century found China at a critical juncture in its long history. The Qing Dynasty, which had ruled since 1644, faced unprecedented challenges from foreign powers and internal decay. The Opium Wars, unequal treaties, and territorial concessions had exposed China’s military and technological backwardness while fueling nationalist resentment. Against this backdrop, the young Emperor Guangxu, under the influence of reform-minded scholars like Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao, initiated what would become known as the Hundred Days’ Reform in the summer of 1898.

These proposed reforms represented the most comprehensive modernization effort China had yet witnessed. They aimed to transform nearly every aspect of Chinese society—education, government, military, and industry. The reformers proposed replacing the ancient civil service examination system with modern schools, creating a constitutional monarchy, developing modern industries, and building a powerful navy. For 103 days, from June 11 to September 21, 1898, Emperor Guangxu issued a series of edicts that promised to drag China into the modern world.

The Conservative Backlash and Imperial Power Struggle

The ambitious reform program threatened the entrenched interests of the conservative Manchu elite and the powerful bureaucracy. Most significantly, it challenged the authority of the Empress Dowager Cixi, who had been the real power behind the throne for decades. As the reforms progressed, opposition coalesced around Cixi’s court. The conservatives viewed the reformers as dangerous radicals who would destroy Chinese tradition and undermine Manchu rule.

The power struggle came to a head in September 1898 when the Guangxu Emperor allegedly planned to remove Cixi from power. The details remain controversial among historians, but what is certain is that Cixi moved decisively to crush the reform movement. On September 21, she emerged from retirement in the Summer Palace, placed the emperor under house arrest, and declared that she would once again handle state affairs. The Hundred Days’ Reform was over, and the hunt for its proponents began.

The Arrest and Trial of the Six Gentlemen

Among the many reformers targeted, six particularly prominent figures were captured and charged with treason: Tan Sitong, Yang Rui, Lin Xu, Liu Guangdi, Kang Guangren , and Yang Shenxiu. These men would become known to history as the “Six Gentlemen of the Hundred Days’ Reform.” Their arrest and rapid trial symbolized the complete victory of the conservative faction.

The trial itself was largely ceremonial—a show trial designed to legitimize what was essentially a political purge. The defendants were brought before the Board of Punishments, where they faced accusations of fomenting rebellion and undermining the state. The proceedings were characterized by their disregard for proper judicial procedure. When Liu Guangdi demanded that the court follow proper legal protocols, his request was dismissed by the presiding official, Gangyi, who stated he was merely following imperial decrees.

The Final Hours at Caishikou Execution Grounds

On September 28, 1898, just one week after Cixi’s coup, the six reformers were transported to the Caishikou execution grounds in Beijing. The procession through the city streets drew enormous crowds of onlookers, creating an atmosphere of tense spectacle. Among the spectators was the famous martial artist and folk hero Wang Wu, who had come to witness the execution of his friend Tan Sitong but found himself unable to watch the actual moment of death.

The execution method was beheading, a traditional punishment for treason in Qing China. The scene was carefully orchestrated to maximize its psychological impact on both the condemned and the spectators. The execution order was deliberately arranged to prolong the suffering of Yang Rui and Liu Guangdi, who were forced to watch their companions die before meeting their own ends. This cruel sequencing served as punishment for their earlier defiance in the courtroom.

Cultural Significance and Public Reaction

The execution of the Six Gentlemen resonated deeply throughout Chinese society. While the conservative faction intended the public spectacle to serve as a warning against future challenges to the established order, it ultimately had the opposite effect. The dignified manner in which the reformers faced death—particularly Tan Sitong’s famous declaration that he willingly sacrificed himself to awaken his countrymen—transformed them into martyrs for the cause of reform.

The events sparked complex reactions among the spectators. While some in the crowd followed the tradition of shouting to ward off evil spirits when the executions occurred, others wept openly. The contrast between Kang Guangren’s solitary death—with no friends or family to claim his body—and the mourning that surrounded the other reformers highlighted the political nature of the punishments. The spontaneous act of a scholar who closed Tan Sitong’s eyes after the execution, declaring “There is heaven above!” became part of the legend surrounding these events.

The Political Aftermath and Shifting Alliances

In the immediate aftermath of the executions, the conservative faction consolidated its power. Key figures like Ronglu, who had played a crucial role in suppressing the reform movement, were rewarded with important positions. Ronglu’s appointment to the Grand Council while retaining control of military forces represented an unprecedented concentration of power that reflected the Empress Dowager’s need for loyal supporters.

The political landscape shifted significantly as a result of the failed reforms. The moderate approach of figures like Li Hongzhang, who had advocated for gradual change, was discredited by the radicalism of the Hundred Days’ Reform and the violent reaction it provoked. The Qing court became increasingly isolated from intellectual currents that recognized the necessity of fundamental change, setting the stage for more revolutionary movements in the coming decade.

Legacy and Historical Interpretation

The execution of the Six Gentlemen marked a critical turning point in modern Chinese history. It demonstrated the Qing court’s inability to reform itself from within, convincing many intellectuals that revolutionary change rather than gradual reform was necessary to save China. The martyrs of 1898 became symbols of patriotic sacrifice, their memory invoked by subsequent generations of reformers and revolutionaries.

The differing fates of the reformers’ bodies after execution—the careful arrangements made for some, the neglect shown toward others—reflected the complex political allegiances of the time. The efforts of Wang Wu’s disciple Zhang Dianchen to ensure Tan Sitong received a proper burial, including attempting to preserve the integrity of his body despite the execution method, illustrated the deep respect these men commanded even in death.

Modern Relevance and Historical Memory

More than a century later, the story of the Six Gentlemen continues to resonate in Chinese historical consciousness. Their failed reform movement represents a road not taken—a possibility of peaceful evolution toward modernity that was brutally cut short. Historians continue to debate what might have happened if the reforms had succeeded, with some suggesting China might have avoided decades of revolution and turmoil.

The site of their execution at Caishikou, once Beijing’s primary execution ground, has transformed dramatically over the years. What was once a place of public punishment is now a bustling commercial district, though memorials and historical markers ensure that the sacrifice of the Six Gentlemen is not forgotten. Their story remains a powerful reminder of the costs of political intolerance and the enduring human aspiration for progress and reform.

The tragedy of the Hundred Days’ Reform and its aftermath ultimately illustrates the profound difficulty of implementing change in traditional societies facing external threats. The conflicting demands of preserving cultural identity while adopting necessary innovations, of maintaining stability while pursuing progress, continue to challenge nations worldwide. The legacy of the Six Gentlemen thus transcends its specific historical context to speak to universal questions about political change, courage, and the price of principle.