Introduction to Zhuangzi’s Last Teachings

The final chapters of the Zhuangzi, one of the foundational texts of Daoist philosophy, offer profound insights into human nature, societal values, and the pursuit of authenticity. Though positioned as the penultimate chapter, this section effectively serves as the book’s conclusion, providing a synthesis of Zhuangzi’s core ideas through allegory, critique, and reflection. Written during the Warring States period, a time of social upheaval and intellectual fervor in ancient China, the text challenges readers to reject artificial constructs and embrace a life aligned with the natural order. Through vivid parables and sharp dialogues, Zhuangzi deconstructs human vanity, political ambition, and the fragility of perception, urging a return to simplicity and inner clarity.

Historical and Philosophical Context

To fully appreciate the messages within this chapter, one must understand the era in which Zhuangzi lived. The Warring States period was marked by incessant conflict among rival states, political instability, and the rise of competing philosophical schools such as Confucianism, Legalism, and Daoism. Against this backdrop, Zhuangzi’s writings emerged as a counter-cultural force, critiquing the moral rigidity of Confucianism and the power-centric ethos of Legalism. His philosophy emphasized spontaneity, relativity of perception, and harmony with the Dao—the underlying principle of the universe. This chapter, coming at the end of the Zhuangzi, encapsulates his mature thought, reflecting both a personal and philosophical culmination.

The Parable of Cao Shang: A Critique of Vanity

One of the most striking stories in this chapter involves a man named Cao Shang, who served as an envoy from the state of Song to Qin. Upon his return, Cao Shang proudly boasted to Zhuangzi about the material rewards he received—first a few chariots, then a hundred more—for pleasing the ruler of Qin. He contrasted his own success with Zhuangzi’s impoverished condition, implying that his political acumen far surpassed the philosopher’s humble existence. Zhuangzi responded with a cutting analogy: he described how the king of Qin rewarded physicians based on the repulsiveness of the treatments they performed—those who lanced boils received one chariot, while those who treated hemorrhoids by licking them received five. Zhuangzi then pointedly asked Cao Shang whether he had engaged in similarly degrading acts to earn his hundred chariots.

This parable operates on multiple levels. On the surface, it is a humorous and sarcastic dismissal of worldly success. More deeply, it critiques the moral compromises inherent in political life and the hollow nature of material gain. Zhuangzi exposes how pursuit of wealth and status often requires sacrificing one’s integrity and aligning with corrupt power structures. The story reinforces Daoist values of inner purity and detachment from external validation, suggesting that true worth lies not in accumulation but in ethical consistency and alignment with nature.

Confucius on the Perils of Human Perception

Another significant segment features Confucius lamenting the difficulty of understanding human nature. He declares that the human heart is more treacherous than mountains and rivers and harder to comprehend than the heavens, for while nature follows predictable cycles, people conceal their true intentions behind layers of artifice. Confucius outlines nine methods to evaluate a person’s character: assigning distant tasks to observe loyalty, close tasks to observe respect, complex tasks to observe ability, sudden questions to observe wisdom, tight deadlines to observe reliability, financial responsibility to observe integrity, shared danger to observe courage, drunkenness to observe decorum, and mixed-gender settings to observe restraint.

This passage, though attributed to Confucius, aligns with Zhuangzi’s broader exploration of perception and reality. It reflects the intense preoccupation in pre-Qin China with discerning authenticity in an era of political deception and social ambition. Philosophical texts like The Six Secret Teachings and The Annals of Lü Buwei offered similar techniques, indicating a widespread intellectual concern with human reliability. For Zhuangzi, however, this focus on judgment also carries an ironic undertone—the very need for such tests underscores the artificiality and distrust pervading human relationships, further justifying his call to return to unmediated, natural existence.

Zhuangzi’s Death: Embracing the Natural Cycle

The chapter’s final section, “Zhuangzi Nearing Death,” is perhaps its most philosophically resonant. As Zhuangzi lay dying, his disciples expressed their intention to give him a lavish burial. He rejected this, arguing that everything in the universe—sky, earth, sun, moon, stars—would serve as his coffin and grave goods. His students worried that his body would be devoured by birds and beasts, to which Zhuangzi replied that withholding his body from animals would be akin to stealing from them to feed underground insects, a hypocritical and unnatural act.

This narrative transcends a mere rejection of funeral customs; it embodies Zhuangzi’s radical acceptance of death as a natural transformation. He views himself not as a separate entity but as an integral part of the cosmos, whose bodily return to nature is both inevitable and harmonious. The passage challenges human arrogance and the illusion of permanence, advocating instead for a perspective that embraces change and continuity within the natural world. It also subtly critiques social rituals that impose human values onto natural processes, reinforcing the Daoist ideal of effortless action and alignment with the Dao.

Cultural and Social Impacts

Zhuangzi’s teachings in this chapter resonated deeply within Chinese intellectual history, influencing not only Daoism but also art, literature, and later philosophical movements like Chan Buddhism. His emphasis on relativism—the idea that value judgments are subjective and context-dependent—undermined rigid moral hierarchies and encouraged creative, critical thinking. Stories like that of Cao Shang became cultural touchstones, symbolizing the folly of pride and the emptiness of worldly success.

Socially, Zhuangzi’s critiques offered an alternative to the dominant Confucian paradigm, which stressed social duties, filial piety, and political engagement. For individuals disillusioned by court politics or societal expectations, Zhuangzi’s philosophy provided a framework for personal freedom and spiritual solace. His imagery of the “true man” who navigates the world without being corrupted by it inspired generations of artists, poets, and thinkers to seek authenticity beyond conventional norms.

Legacy and Modern Relevance

The enduring relevance of Zhuangzi’s final teachings lies in their timeless interrogation of human nature, perception, and meaning. In contemporary terms, his ideas anticipate modern psychological and philosophical discussions about authenticity, materialism, and ecological consciousness. The critique of Cao Shang’s vanity finds echoes in today’s critiques of consumer culture and social media-driven narcissism, while Zhuangzi’s embrace of natural cycles aligns with environmental ethics and acceptance of mortality.

Moreover, the methods for evaluating character attributed to Confucius reflect ongoing concerns about trust and deception in personal and professional relationships. In an age of digital communication and curated identities, Zhuangzi’s insistence on looking beyond appearances remains strikingly pertinent. His overall message—that peace comes from aligning with the natural order rather than resisting it—offers a counterbalance to the relentless pursuit of control and efficiency that defines modern life.

Conclusion: The Enduring Voice of Zhuangzi

The final chapter of the Zhuangzi stands as a powerful summation of Daoist philosophy, blending sharp critique, poetic allegory, and profound wisdom. Through stories of vanity, perception, and mortality, Zhuangzi invites readers to shed artificial constructs and rediscover their innate connection to the natural world. His teachings challenge us to question our values, examine our motivations, and ultimately, to live with greater simplicity and authenticity. As the text itself implies, the end of Zhuangzi’s writing is not an termination but a return—to the source, to nature, and to the timeless truth that meaning lies not in having or appearing, but in being.