Introduction: The Dawn of Imperialism and the Scramble for China

By the late 19th century, the world had entered a new epoch dominated by imperialism, the highest stage of capitalism as theorized by Vladimir Lenin. Major capitalist powers had carved up nearly every corner of the globe into colonial empires, leaving few territories untouched. Yet, rising imperialist nations sought to challenge the established order, demanding a redivision of colonies and spheres of influence.

Among the most coveted prizes was China, a vast but politically and militarily backward empire that maintained only a superficial sovereignty. The weakening Qing dynasty’s realm became the epicenter of intense rivalry among imperialist powers eager to expand their footholds in East Asia. The First Sino-Japanese War emerged in this context, marking a pivotal moment not only in Chinese but also in world history.

Of all the powers competing for influence in China, Japan was the most audacious and threatening. This war, often called the First Sino-Japanese War or the Jiawu War , was the first major conflict where a rising Asian power challenged a traditional regional hegemon and European imperialism simultaneously.

Background: The Imperialist Transition and East Asia’s Fragile Order

The last quarter of the 19th century saw capitalist nations transition from industrial expansion to aggressive imperialism — a phase characterized by military conquest, economic monopolies, and geopolitical rivalries. Britain, France, Germany, Russia, and the United States had already staked claims worldwide, but Japan, having undergone rapid modernization since the Meiji Restoration , was eager to assert itself.

China, under the Qing dynasty, was beset by internal decay, corruption, and military weakness. It had suffered humiliating defeats in the Opium Wars and faced repeated incursions and unequal treaties imposed by foreign powers. Korea, traditionally a Chinese tributary state, became a flashpoint for conflict, with Japan and China both claiming interests there.

Japan’s ambition was fueled by its desire to be recognized as a modern imperial power and to secure resources and strategic advantages. The Korean peninsula, with its proximity and historical ties, was a natural target. The conflict began as a struggle for influence over Korea but quickly escalated into a full-scale war between China and Japan.

The Outbreak of War: The Donghak Peasant Uprising as a Catalyst

The immediate trigger for the war was the Donghak Peasant Uprising in Korea in the spring of 1894. This widespread rebellion, led by the Donghak movement, was a popular revolt against the entrenched Korean feudal elite and foreign interference, particularly by Western powers and Japanese militarism.

The rebels rallied under the slogans of eradicating corrupt officials and expelling foreign invaders. By June 1, they had captured Jeonju, the capital of Jeolla Province, gaining momentum throughout Korea. The Korean monarchy was alarmed and powerless to suppress the uprising.

Japan’s Foreign Minister Mutsu Munemitsu saw this as the perfect pretext to intervene militarily in Korea. His strategic thinking, echoed by military leaders such as Chief of Staff Kawakami Soroku, was that Korea’s internal instability would provoke China to send troops. Japan could then justify its own military deployment, effectively starting a conflict on terms favorable to Tokyo.

Meanwhile, Qing China’s leadership was divided. Li Hongzhang, a senior statesman, initially hesitated to send troops into Korea, wary of provoking Japan. However, Yuan Shikai, the Chinese commissioner stationed in Korea, strongly advocated dispatching forces to suppress the uprising, citing diplomatic messages from Japanese officials that suggested China could act without Japanese suspicion.

This miscalculation played into Japan’s hands. On June 4, China received a formal request from Korea for military assistance. Li Hongzhang ordered the Beiyang Fleet’s Admiral Ding Ruchang to send warships “Jiyuan” and “Yangwei” to Incheon and Seoul to protect Chinese interests, joining the “Pingyuan” already stationed there. He also tasked General Ye Zhichao and General Nie Shicheng with dispatching over two thousand troops by sea to Korea.

Simultaneously, China informed Japan through the Tianjin Convention protocols of its military movements, promising to withdraw troops once order was restored. This diplomatic formality, however, failed to prevent the looming conflict.

Japan’s Preemptive Strike and Military Mobilization

Unbeknownst to the Chinese, Japan’s government had already decided on a preemptive military intervention by June 2. Under the guise of protecting its embassy and nationals, Japan secretly mobilized troops.

Japan’s ambassador to Korea, Ōtori Keisuke, promptly returned from leave, accompanied by a naval landing force of over 400 marines, entering Seoul under the pretext of escorting him. This force soon expanded into a reinforced mixed brigade of over 8,000 soldiers, led by Major General Ōshima Yoshimasa, consisting of infantry regiments, cavalry, artillery, engineers, and support units.

Japan’s navy deployed significant assets, including the flagship “Matsushima” and other cruisers and battleships, to secure control over critical ports such as Busan and Incheon. They established naval blockades and laid minefields, asserting dominance over Korea’s coastlines.

While Chinese forces had already moved into Korea, Japan’s aggressive posturing and military buildup created an atmosphere of imminent war. Li Hongzhang, instead of preparing for conflict with decisive measures, sought international diplomatic intervention, appealing to Russia, Britain, and other European powers to mediate. These requests were largely ignored or rebuffed, leaving China diplomatically isolated.

Even more strategically damaging was China’s withdrawal of its naval forces from Korean waters in early July, including pulling back all Beiyang Fleet ships. This concession ceded control of key maritime areas to Japan, a critical error given Japan’s superior naval power and the importance of sea control in the ensuing conflict.

The Course of the War: From Clash to Defeat

The war formally erupted in July 1894 and quickly demonstrated the disparities between the two powers. Japan’s modernized army, trained and equipped along Western lines, rapidly defeated Chinese forces on land. The Japanese navy decisively defeated the Beiyang Fleet in the Battle of the Yellow Sea, ensuring command of the sea lanes.

Japan’s victories extended beyond Korea into Chinese territory, including the capture of strategic cities like Port Arthur and Weihaiwei. The conflict revealed the Qing dynasty’s military ineptitude and logistical weaknesses, further undermining its authority.

The war ended with the Treaty of Shimonoseki in April 1895, which imposed harsh conditions on China. Japan gained control of Taiwan, the Liaodong Peninsula , and secured Korea’s independence from China—effectively bringing Korea into Japan’s sphere.

Cultural and Political Impacts: China and Japan in the Aftermath

The First Sino-Japanese War marked a profound turning point. For China, the defeat exposed the urgent need for modernization and reform but also intensified internal turmoil, eventually contributing to revolutionary movements that would culminate in the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911.

For Japan, the victory confirmed its emergence as a major imperialist power. Japan’s success inspired nationalist pride and justified further expansionist policies, setting the stage for conflicts throughout the 20th century.

Internationally, the war reshaped East Asian geopolitics and alerted Western powers to Japan’s growing influence. It also underscored the vulnerabilities of traditional empires facing industrialized, militarized states.

Legacy: The War’s Enduring Significance

The First Sino-Japanese War was more than a regional conflict; it symbolized the shifting balance of power in East Asia and the broader dynamics of imperialism. It demonstrated how military modernization, strategic calculation, and imperial ambition could upend long-standing political orders.

The conflict’s lessons in diplomacy, military preparedness, and national sovereignty influenced the policies of East Asian states for decades. It also highlighted the dangers of underestimating emerging powers and the importance of adapting to global power structures.

In sum, the 1894-1895 war was a watershed moment, one that reshaped the destinies of China, Japan, Korea, and the wider world, echoing into the modern era.