A Merchant’s View of Song Dynasty Cities

When Venetian merchant Marco Polo visited the Southern Song capital of Hangzhou in the late 13th century, he recorded observations that seemed almost fantastical to European readers: “The inhabitants of Kinsai (Hangzhou) are peaceful in demeanor, a result of their education and the example set by their rulers. They know nothing of weapons and keep none in their houses. No disputes or quarrels ever arise between households, and in their commerce and manufacturing, they conduct themselves with perfect fairness and honesty.” Another Italian traveler, Jacob of Ancona, who visited Quanzhou in 1271, similarly noted the remarkable social harmony and charitable practices he witnessed in Song cities.

These accounts might sound exaggerated, but they find strong corroboration in contemporary Chinese sources. The Menglianglu, a detailed record of Southern Song Hangzhou, describes how residents would rally to protect outsiders from being bullied, how neighbors would help newcomers settle in by lending household items and offering guidance, and how communities would pool resources to celebrate new arrivals through a custom called “warming the house.” During winter snows, wealthy families would secretly slip silver coins wrapped in paper through the cracks of poor households’ doors or windows – a practice so common it became institutionalized.

The Social Fabric of Song Urban Life

What made Song dynasty cities so remarkable was their sophisticated social welfare systems and community spirit. The Dongjing Menghualu, documenting Northern Song Kaifeng, portrays a society where merchants and citizens placed high value on “human relationships and righteous conduct.” When disputes arose involving outsiders, locals would intervene to protect them. Newcomers renting homes could expect neighbors to bring tea, offer business advice, and help them settle in. A class of “tea carriers” moved through neighborhoods daily, maintaining social connections and checking on residents.

The Southern Song capital Lin’an (modern Hangzhou) developed these traditions even further. According to Wulin Jinshi, the government frequently waived rents and taxes for residents, while various welfare programs provided:
– “Yellow Notice Money” during imperial celebrations
– “Snow Cold Money” during harsh winters
– Disaster relief during prolonged rains or droughts
– Free medical care through government-subsidized pharmacies
– Orphanages (Ciyouju) for abandoned children
– Poorhouses (Yangjiyuan) for the destitute
– Public cemeteries (Louzeyuan) for those who couldn’t afford burials

This comprehensive safety net allowed even the poor to enjoy leisure activities. As records note: “The impoverished would pawn goods to take their wives and children out for all-day excursions, not returning home until drunk… This wasn’t just for the wealthy – even poor people would celebrate the seasons… Regardless of wealth, people would visit temples all day long, with every household holding feasts amid laughter and chatter.”

Demographic Revolution: The First Hundred Million

The Song dynasty marked China’s first population surge past 100 million. While Han and Tang populations peaked around 65-70 million, Northern Song records from 1110 show 20.8 million households. Accounting for the Song’s unique census methods (which only counted adult males for tax purposes), scholars estimate the actual population reached 120-140 million – double previous peaks.

This demographic explosion was supported by an agricultural revolution:
– Introduction of fast-ripening Champa rice from Vietnam enabled double-cropping
– Average rice yields reached 2-3 shi per mu (about 300-450 lbs/acre), with some areas achieving 6-7 shi
– Total cultivated land expanded to over 700 million mu (about 115 million acres)
– Each farming household could support 2.35 non-farming families
– Grain commercialization rates reached 17-40%, feeding growing cities

As agricultural productivity soared, massive population shifts occurred. Song urbanization rates reached unprecedented levels:
– 20.1% in Northern Song
– 22.4% in Southern Song (possibly 30% at peak)
– Compared to just 7% in Qing dynasty and 15% in 1957 China

The Rise of Medieval Megacities

This urban revolution birthed the world’s first true megacities. The Song established distinct urban household registries (fangguohu), formally recognizing city dwellers as a separate class from rural populations (xiangcunhu). Nearly 50 cities exceeded 100,000 residents, with the capitals dwarfing all contemporaries:

Northern Song’s Bianliang (Kaifeng):
– Daily consumption of 10,000 pigs suggests population over 1 million
– Official records show 261,117 households (likely 1.56 million people)
– Compared to contemporary London/Paris at 10,000, Damascus at 50,000

Southern Song’s Lin’an (Hangzhou):
– “Several hundred thousand households, over a million people” (contemporary accounts)
– Modern estimates including suburbs: 2.5 million
– Remained China’s largest city until modern times

These cities boasted remarkable infrastructure:
– Multi-tiered healthcare systems (specialized clinics, 24-hour pharmacies)
– Government-subsidized “Benevolent Pharmacies” selling medicine at 2/3 market price
– Strict regulations ensuring night-time medical access
– Specialized hospitals for pediatrics, obstetrics etc.

The Legacy of Song Urban Culture

The Song urban experience represented a watershed in Chinese – and global – history. Its achievements would not be matched until modern times:

1. Economic Sophistication: Advanced division of labor, commercialized agriculture, and proto-industrial production created unprecedented wealth.

2. Social Welfare: The Song developed the world’s most comprehensive pre-modern welfare systems, blending government programs with community support.

3. Urban Planning: Specialized commercial districts, entertainment quarters, and mixed-use neighborhoods created vibrant city life.

4. Cultural Flourishing: From tea houses to theaters, urbanites enjoyed rich leisure culture that would shape Chinese society for centuries.

5. Demographic Transition: The shift from rural to urban society anticipated trends that would sweep Europe only after industrialization.

As modern China undergoes another unprecedented urbanization wave, the Song experience offers fascinating parallels – a reminder that China’s urban tradition runs deep, with lessons about balancing growth with social harmony, commerce with community, and innovation with tradition. The merchants’ accounts that seemed so extraordinary in medieval Europe simply recorded everyday life in what was then the world’s most advanced urban civilization.