From Ancient Migrations to Modern Metropolises

The story of Chinese influence in Vietnam spans millennia, beginning during what Vietnamese historians call the “Northern Domination Period” . Throughout this era of Chinese administrative control, waves of Han Chinese migrants—including officials, merchants, artisans, and exiles—settled in the Red River Delta region. Archaeological evidence reveals how profoundly these settlers transformed local culture: Han-style brick tombs with Chinese burial goods became widespread, eventually dominating the material culture of the Hanoi area. Vietnamese historical records openly acknowledge this cultural debt, noting that the country’s tradition of scholarship and administrative organization began with Shi Xie, a Chinese governor of Jiaozhou during the late Han Dynasty who hailed from Shandong province.

The integration between Chinese settlers and indigenous Vietnamese people became so profound that, as historian Tran Trong Kim observed, modern Vietnamese people by a clan from Dongguan in Guangdong.

The Ming Loyalist Exodus

A new chapter in Chinese migration to Vietnam began during the Ming-Qing transition in the 17th century. As the Qing dynasty consolidated power over China, thousands of Ming loyalists refused to submit to the new regime, particularly opposing the mandatory queue hairstyle and Manchu clothing requirements. This “because ashamed to serve foreign rulers” migration brought educated officials, military leaders, and their followers southward in what became a significant demographic and cultural movement.

In 1671, a remarkable journey began when Mo Jiu .

Building an Southern Paradise

When Mo Jiu and his followers arrived at Hà Tiên, they found a sparsely populated frontier region inhabited by Khmer and Malay people who primarily lived through fishing, hunting, and occasionally piracy. The land appeared barren and underutilized. Drawing on Chinese agricultural and engineering knowledge, the settlers transformed the landscape: they cleared wasteland into productive fields, dug irrigation canals that extended throughout the countryside, and established systematic farming practices.

Under Mo Jiu’s leadership, Hà Tiên rapidly developed from a sleepy fishing village into a prosperous trading port. Merchant ships from throughout Southeast Asia began calling regularly at its harbors. The settlement gained paved streets, interconnected alleys, and continuous rows of shops, earning it the nickname “Little Guangzhou.” Mo Jiu established a full administrative system with government offices, a military force, fortified walls, and even a Confucian temple. He minted coins and created the cultural institutions of a proper city-state.

The settlement’s beauty became celebrated in poetry, particularly in the “Ten Songs of Hà Tiên” which described its scenic spots: the moon reflected in East Lake, clear waves at South Bank, layered green mountains like screens, clouds swallowing stone caves, golden islands breaking waves, herons descending on pearl cliffs, evening bells from temples, night drums in the river city, fishing boats on reed streams, and village life at Deer Island. Through Chinese ingenuity and labor, this once-desolate region had been transformed into what appeared to be a “Southern Paradise.”

Geopolitical Challenges and Changing Allegiances

Hà Tiên’s prosperity inevitably attracted unwanted attention from neighboring powers. Around 1679, the Kingdom of Siam launched an eastern invasion that devastated the flourishing settlement. The Cambodian rulers, to whom Mo Jiu had originally pledged allegiance, proved too weak to offer protection, fleeing at the first sign of trouble.

Faced with this existential threat, Mo Jiu made a pragmatic decision to switch allegiance to the Nguyen lords who controlled southern Vietnam. The Nguyen realm, which called itself the “Great Viet Country of the Nguyen Lords” , faced its own challenges. Their territory was relatively poor compared to the Red River Delta in northern Vietnam, with mountainous terrain and limited agricultural land. The Nguyen lords had long pursued southern expansion policies, and the offer of a already-developed territory like Hà Tiên represented an extraordinary opportunity.

The Nguyen rulers gladly accepted Mo Jiu’s allegiance, granting him and his descendants the hereditary title of Governor of Hà Tiên. This administrative shift formally transferred the territory from Cambodian to Vietnamese control, incorporating it into what today constitutes Vietnam’s southernmost province of Kien Giang. Contemporary French observers acknowledged that “the Annamites [Vietnamese] became true masters of the western Cochinchina entirely through the assistance of the Chinese of Hà Tiên.”

The Settlement of Saigon

Just as the Mo family was establishing itself in Hà Tiên, another group of Ming loyalists arrived seeking sanctuary with the Nguyen regime. In the summer of 1679, according to Vietnamese historical records, a military force led by Yang Yandi near the Nguyen capital of Hue. This contingent comprised more than 3,000 soldiers and family members aboard 50 warships.

These commanders identified themselves as officials from China’s Guangdong province who, with the Ming dynasty ended, “refused to serve the Great Qing” and had come south to offer their services. The sudden arrival of such a substantial military force created anxiety among the Nguyen leadership, who carefully considered how to handle this unexpected development. Accepting these battle-hardened troops risked provoking conflict with the powerful Qing dynasty to the north.

The Nguyen lords devised a strategic solution: they directed these Chinese forces to settle in the largely undeveloped Mekong Delta region, specifically around the area that would become Saigon . This accomplished multiple objectives simultaneously—it removed a potential military threat from their doorstep, placed experienced soldiers as a buffer against Cambodian claims in the region, and initiated the development of strategically important territory.

Transforming the Mekong Frontier

The Chinese settlers, under their military leaders, began the systematic development of the Saigon area. They established military colonies, cleared land for agriculture, dug canals for transportation and irrigation, and created market towns. Their efforts transformed the Mekong Delta from a sparsely populated frontier into Vietnam’s agricultural heartland and most important commercial center.

These developments laid the foundation for what would become Ho Chi Minh City, today a metropolis of over 7 million people and Vietnam’s largest urban area. The city accounts for more than 20% of the country’s GDP and remains the economic engine of modern Vietnam. This remarkable economic significance traces back directly to those 17th-century Chinese settlers who first organized the region’s agriculture, trade, and infrastructure.

Cultural Legacy and Lasting Influence

The Chinese migration to southern Vietnam left enduring marks on the region’s culture, architecture, and administrative systems. The settlers introduced Chinese agricultural techniques, including advanced irrigation methods that made the Mekong Delta one of Southeast Asia’s most productive rice-growing regions. They established Confucian educational traditions and built temples that blended Chinese and local architectural styles.

The commercial networks created by these early Chinese communities formed the foundation for Vietnam’s integration into regional trade patterns. The entrepreneurial spirit and business acumen of the Chinese settlers helped establish southern Vietnam as a hub of commerce that continues to this day. Many modern Vietnamese businesses in Ho Chi Minh City can trace their origins back to these early Chinese trading families.

Historical Reckoning and Modern Relations

The story of Chinese settlement in southern Vietnam represents a complex chapter in the relationship between the two countries. For centuries, Vietnamese historiography has acknowledged the contributions of these early Chinese communities while also emphasizing Vietnam’s ultimate independence and distinct cultural identity. In contemporary times, this history informs the nuanced relationship between Vietnam and China—neighbors with deep historical connections who nevertheless maintain separate political destinies.

The legacy of Mo Jiu, Chen Shangchuan, and the other Chinese pioneers remains visible in modern Ho Chi Minh City through architectural landmarks, cultural practices, and the very layout of the urban center. Understanding this history provides essential context for comprehending Vietnam’s southward expansion and the development of its distinctive regional cultures.

Conclusion: Recognizing the Founders

The transformation of southern Vietnam from a sparsely populated frontier into the nation’s economic heartland represents one of Southeast Asia’s significant historical developments. This transformation was fundamentally shaped by Chinese migrants who brought technical knowledge, organizational skills, and entrepreneurial spirit to the region. While political circumstances have sometimes made this history uncomfortable to acknowledge, the factual record clearly shows that Chinese settlers played indispensable roles in developing Hà Tiên, Saigon, and the Mekong Delta region.

The modern prosperity of Ho Chi Minh City and southern Vietnam more broadly stands as testament to these early pioneers whose vision and labor created the foundation upon which contemporary Vietnam has built its economic success. Recognizing this history does not diminish Vietnamese agency or accomplishment but rather enriches our understanding of how civilizations develop through the complex interplay of migration, cultural exchange, and adaptation to new environments. The story of how Chinese settlers shaped southern Vietnam remains essential to understanding both the region’s past and its continuing role in Vietnam’s future development.