The Ancient Waters of the Northeast

Flowing eastward from the ancient walls of Ji City, two mighty rivers carved their paths through history: the Ru River and the Liao River. These waterways were more than geographical features—they were the lifeblood of forgotten kingdoms that once stood as bulwarks of Chinese civilization against the northern wilderness.

The Ru River basin housed the enigmatic Guzhu Kingdom, a vassal state established during the Shang Dynasty (1600–1046 BCE). Its capital, Lingzhi, bore witness to one of China’s earliest tales of political idealism when princes Bo Yi and Shu Qi famously starved themselves rather than serve the conquering Zhou Dynasty. This act of defiance so moved King Wu of Zhou that he remarkably allowed Guzhu to retain its semi-independent status—an unprecedented concession.

The Rise and Fall of Frontier Kingdoms

By the Spring and Autumn Period (771–476 BCE), the expanding Qi State under Duke Huan and his legendary chancellor Guan Zhong swallowed Guzhu whole. Yet Qi’s dominance proved fleeting. As central authority waned, the nomadic Donghu people swept across the lands east of the Ru River, forcing the beleaguered Yan State to send hostages to maintain an uneasy peace.

The turning point came with the reign of King Zhao of Yan (311–279 BCE) and his brilliant general Yue Yi. Inspired by Duke Mu of Qin’s western expansions, they devised an audacious plan to reclaim these frontier territories. The man chosen to lead this campaign was General Qin Kai—a former hostage to the Donghu who understood their ways intimately. In a stunning six-month campaign with an untested army of 50,000, Qin Kai drove the Donghu back to the Mongolian steppes, establishing three new commanderies that would shape northeast China for centuries.

The Crucible of Liaodong

Beyond the Ru River’s eastern reaches lay the Liao River basin—a land of harsh winters and fiercer inhabitants. The Yan military established its headquarters near Xiangping (modern Liaoyang), where the landscape provided both natural defenses and abundant resources. But the true value of Liaodong lay not in its geography, but in its people.

This was the ancient territory of the Gija State, founded by the Shang noble Jizi after the Zhou conquest. Over centuries, these “Goryeo” people (as they came to be known) developed a unique martial culture shaped by their hunter-gatherer lifestyle. By the Warring States period, their self-proclaimed King Man represented the final break from Zhou authority—until Qin Kai’s campaign absorbed them into Yan’s expanding frontier.

Forging an Army from the Wilderness

Yue Yi recognized Liaodong’s inhabitants as potentially the finest soldiers in China—hardened by climate, skilled in combat, yet systematically oppressed as second-class subjects. Their resentment ran deep; generations had served as cannon fodder without recognition or reward.

The general implemented revolutionary reforms:
– Abolished the serfdom system that bound Liaodong’s hunters and fishermen
– Distributed fertile lands to those willing to farm
– Promised military rewards including land grants and spoils of war
– Established the “Penalty Meat” system to break superstitious dietary taboos

The response was overwhelming. Within months, 100,000 volunteers joined the ranks, forcing Yue Yi to implement phased recruitment. His innovative underground mess halls—designed to serve hot meals during brutal winters—became legendary, boosting morale and physical readiness.

The Strategic Vision

For Yue Yi, Liaodong represented more than military manpower—it was the key to Yan’s ascendance. As he inspected troops in the dead of winter, suffering frostbite alongside his men, the general envisioned using this hardened army to challenge mighty Qi’s 600,000-strong forces. A victory would shatter Yan’s reputation as the “Weak Northern State” and potentially alter the Warring States balance of power.

His reforms created something unprecedented—a motivated, well-supplied frontier force that blended Yan military discipline with Liaodong’s indigenous warrior culture. The “Penalty Meat” system exemplified this synthesis: by having rule-breakers eat the tabooed roe deer rump (considered prime cuts by outsiders), Yue Yi simultaneously maintained discipline while breaking down cultural barriers.

Legacy of the Forgotten Campaign

Though Yue Yi’s dream of conquering Qi would ultimately falter, his Liaodong campaign left an indelible mark. The three commanderies he established became China’s foothold in Manchuria for centuries. His military innovations—from practical solutions like winter mess halls to psychological tactics like the Penalty Meat—demonstrated an early understanding of what modern armies would call “force cohesion.”

Most significantly, the campaign represented one of history’s most successful assimilations of frontier peoples into Chinese civilization. The hunters and fishermen of Liaodong, once marginalized, became defenders of the realm—a pattern that would repeat throughout China’s expansion into its northern and southern frontiers.

As we walk the ruins of Xiangping today or trace the courses of the Ru and Liao Rivers, we walk in the footsteps of Yue Yi’s vision—where strategic necessity met human potential to reshape the map of East Asia.