The Shattered Ming Loyalists and Their Precarious Alliance

In the turbulent mid-17th century, as the Qing dynasty consolidated its rule over China, remnants of the Ming resistance clung to coastal strongholds. One such group was the forces loyal to the Lu Jian Kingdom, a Ming successor state, led by the indomitable Zhang Mingzhen. Following the Qing capture of Zhoushan in 1651, Zhang and his troops retreated to the Jinmen-Xiamen area under the control of the famed Ming loyalist Zheng Chenggong (Koxinga).

Though Zheng offered to absorb Zhang’s forces into his own army, Zhang resisted subordination. Their relationship remained an uneasy alliance—cooperative yet fraught with tension. By 1653, Zhang sought to break free from Zheng’s shadow by launching a bold campaign northward into the Yangtze River, a move intended to reinvigorate the anti-Qing cause. However, Zheng, ever the political strategist, framed Zhang’s expedition as his own initiative, a narrative later reinforced by Zheng’s court historians.

The Three Yangtze Campaigns: Fact vs. Fiction

Historical accounts often misrepresent Zhang Mingzhen’s campaigns as extensions of Zheng Chenggong’s military operations. Yet primary sources reveal a different story:

1. Independent Command – Zhang’s forces remained autonomous, not subordinate to Zheng. While coordination occurred, the campaigns were Zhang’s own initiative.
2. Exaggerated Reinforcements – Claims that Zheng supplied Zhang with 20,000 troops are dubious; Zhang relied primarily on his existing forces.
3. The Myth of Chen Hui’s Involvement – Zheng’s general Chen Hui was dispatched belatedly and never actually joined Zhang’s Yangtze operations due to internal disputes.

Qing records corroborate Zhang’s independence, describing him as a formidable naval commander with “nearly a thousand ships and 20,000 men.” Meanwhile, Zheng, engaged in fragile peace talks with the Qing, avoided direct provocation in northern waters, leaving Zhang to operate with minimal support.

The Campaigns’ Tactical Impact and Psychological Blow

Though Zhang’s three Yangtze incursions (1653–1654) failed to secure lasting victories, their psychological and strategic effects were profound:

– Exposing Qing Vulnerabilities – The raids revealed glaring weaknesses in the Qing’s Yangtze defenses, prompting major military reforms, including redeploying elite Banner troops and reinforcing riverine defenses.
– A Symbolic Defiance – Zhang’s fleet famously conducted a ceremonial mourning at the Ming Xiaoling Mausoleum near Nanjing, a powerful act of Ming loyalist defiance that unnerved Qing authorities.
– Strategic Diversion – The campaigns diverted Qing attention from southern fronts, indirectly aiding other Ming resistance efforts, such as Li Dingguo’s operations in Guangdong.

Legacy: Overshadowed but Not Forgotten

Zhang Mingzhen’s campaigns, though downplayed in Zheng-centric narratives, laid groundwork for future resistance. His lieutenant, Zhang Huangyan, later played a key role in Zheng Chenggong’s 1659 Nanjing offensive, applying lessons from these earlier raids.

Yet history often remembers Zheng as the sole torchbearer of Ming resistance, while figures like Zhang Mingzhen fade into obscurity. Revisiting these campaigns not only corrects the record but highlights the complex, fragmented nature of anti-Qing resistance—a struggle of many heroes, not just one.

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