A Precarious Succession: From Later Zhou to Early Song

The collapse of the Later Tang dynasty (923-936) had served as a cautionary tale for Chinese rulers—a nearly unified empire shattered by internal rebellions. When the Later Zhou dynasty (951-960) fell, history seemed poised to repeat this catastrophe. Yet through a combination of strategic brilliance and fortunate timing, Zhao Kuangyin (Emperor Taizu of Song) navigated these treacherous waters to establish one of China’s most culturally vibrant dynasties.

The Later Zhou’s Emperor Shizong (r. 954-959) had laid ambitious plans for reunification before his untimely death. His vision—methodically subduing southern warlords before confronting northern threats—became the blueprint for Song unification. But where Shizong prioritized confronting the Khitan-led Liao dynasty over the Sixteen Prefectures (Yan云十六州), Zhao Kuangyin inverted this sequence, a decision with lasting geopolitical consequences.

The Firestorm of Rebellion: 960’s Existential Crisis

Within months of proclaiming the Song dynasty in February 960, Zhao faced two simultaneous revolts from Later Zhou loyalists:

1. Li Yun’s Shanxi Uprising
As military commissioner of Zhaoyi Circuit, Li controlled strategic passes linking Shanxi to Henan, including the formidable Tianjing Pass in the Taihang Mountains. His potential alliance with the Northern Han regime (based in Taiyuan) threatened to turn all Shanxi against the fledgling Song.

2. Li Zhongjin’s Yangtze Front
The Huainan commissioner governed eleven prefectures stretching from the Huai River to Wuhan—a region historically contested between northern and southern regimes. This was the same territory Emperor Shizong had wrested from the Southern Tang during 955-958.

Had these revolts coordinated with Northern Han, Khitan Liao, and Southern Tang support, the Song might have collapsed before consolidating. Instead, Zhao exploited their disunity with lightning campaigns:
– April-August 960: Crushed Li Yun before Northern Han reinforcements arrived
– September-November 960: Isolated and defeated the hesitant Li Zhongjin

This twin victory demonstrated Zhao’s mastery of psychological warfare—moving faster than his enemies could conspire.

The Southern Strategy: Piecemeal Unification (963-976)

With internal threats neutralized, Zhao implemented a modified Shizong plan:

### Phase 1: The Central Corridor (963)
– Jingnan (Nanping): Annexed peacefully when ruler Gao Jichong surrendered during Song “mediation” in Hunan
– Hunan: Exploited the succession crisis after Zhou Xingfeng’s death, using Zhang Wenbiao’s rebellion as pretext for intervention

These acquisitions gave the Song:
– Control of the middle Yangtze
– Launching points against Southern Han (Guangdong) and Later Shu (Sichuan)

### Phase 2: The Western Campaign (964-965)
The conquest of Later Shu revealed Song administrative shortcomings:
– Economic Exploitation: Confiscation of Sichuan’s copper coins (to alleviate northern currency shortages) created a dysfunctional iron-coin economy, later spurring the world’s first paper money (jiaozi)
– Rebellion: Harsh governance led to the 993-995 Wang Xiaobo and Li Shun uprisings

### Phase 3: Isolating Southern Tang (970-975)
– Southern Han (970-971): Eliminated to cut off Southern Tang’s southern flank
– Final Blow (974-975): Multi-pronged assault from captured Hunan and Huai River bases

By 976, only Wuyue (Zhejiang) and Min (Fujian) remained—both voluntarily submitted to avoid destruction.

The Unfinished North: Strategic Consequences

Zhao’s southern focus came at a cost:
– Sixteen Prefectures: Permanent loss to the Liao dynasty, creating an indefensible northern frontier
– Military Decline: Southern garrison duties weakened northern defenses

Emperor Taizong’s 979 conquest of Northern Han completed reunification—except for:
1. The Liao-held Sixteen Prefectures
2. Dai Viet: Former Tang Annan Protectorate (Vietnam) under the independent Đinh dynasty
3. Dali Kingdom: Deliberately excluded via the “Jade Axe Policy” along the Dadu River

Economic Paradox: Contraction and Innovation

Despite reduced territory, Song China surpassed Tang economic achievements through:
– Regional Specialization: Iron-coin Sichuan, copper-coin Yangtze Delta
– Commercial Revolution: Paper money, promissory notes, and tax reforms
– Agricultural Intensification: Champa rice adoption doubled yields

Cultural flourishing accompanied this—advances in printing, landscape painting, and Neo-Confucian philosophy made the Song a true golden age within its carefully patched borders.

Legacy: The Cost of Cautious Reunification

Zhao Kuangyin’s strategy achieved short-term stability but created long-term vulnerabilities:
– Northern Weakness: Liao and later Jin invasions exploited the missing Sixteen Prefectures
– Financial Fragility: Regional monetary systems hindered national integration

Yet the Song’s commercial vitality and cultural achievements—born from its constrained geography—left an indelible mark on Chinese civilization, proving that territorial size alone does not determine historical greatness.