The Fragmented Thrones of the Deccan

The death of Nizam ul-Mulk in 1748 plunged Hyderabad—the wealthiest princely state in southern India—into a four-year succession crisis. Six sons and one grandson, Muzaffar Jung, vied for control over a kingdom straddling strategic trade routes and fertile lands. This was no ordinary dynastic struggle: European colonial powers, particularly France and Britain, saw an opportunity to expand influence through proxy rulers.

France’s governor-general Joseph François Dupleix masterminded a bold move. After financing a French-led army that defeated Muzaffar’s rival Nasir Jung in 1750, Dupleix orchestrated Muzaffar’s coronation not in Hyderabad’s grand palaces, but in the French enclave of Pondicherry. The location sent an unmistakable message: real power now flowed from European hands. In return, Muzaffar Jung granted Dupleix governorship over all southern India from the Krishna River to Cape Comorin—a French dominion over 30 million people.

The Precedent That Doomed Indian Sovereignty

Muzaffar’s reign lasted just six weeks before his assassination, but his deal with the French set a catastrophic precedent. Indian rulers now faced an impossible choice: either cede territories and pay for European-led armies to maintain their thrones, or risk overthrow. The British perfected this system, installing “Residents” who dictated royal marriages, succession, and foreign policy. By the late 18th century, many Indian rulers had become mere puppets, their authority hollowed out by contractual obligations to the East India Company.

Clive of India: The Making of an Imperial Legend

The chaos in Hyderabad coincided with the rise of Robert Clive, an ambitious East India Company clerk turned military strategist. His legend began in 1751 at the Siege of Arcot, where he defended a crumbling fort with just 500 men against French-backed forces for 53 days. This improbable victory, later mythologized as a triumph of British “grit over Oriental chaos,” exposed India’s political fractures. As Madras Governor Thomas Saunders noted, Arcot proved that disciplined European forces could dominate subcontinental armies many times their size.

The Black Hole of Calcutta and the Road to Plassey

In 1756, Bengal’s new Nawab, Siraj-ud-Daula, retaliated against British fortification violations by capturing Calcutta. The subsequent imprisonment of 43 British captives in a cramped cell (the infamous “Black Hole”)—where most suffocated—became a propaganda coup. Though modern historians dispute the death toll and Siraj’s direct involvement, the incident galvanized Britain. Clive recaptured Calcutta, expelled the French from Chandannagar, and marched toward the decisive Battle of Plassey (1757).

Plassey: A Coup Disguised as a Battle

Plassey was less a military engagement than a corporate takeover. Clive’s 3,000 troops faced Siraj’s 50,000, but the Nawab’s own commanders—notably Mir Jafar, bribed by the British—withheld their forces. As historian Nick Robins observed, Plassey was “the East India Company’s most lucrative commercial transaction.” The victory gave Britain control over Bengal’s revenues, while Clive amassed a personal fortune (£234,000, equivalent to £30 million today).

The Diwani and the Birth of Colonial Rule

The 1765 Treaty of Allahabad marked the East India Company’s metamorphosis from trader to sovereign. Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II, desperate for British support, granted the Company diwani rights—authority to collect taxes across Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. This unprecedented power let a corporation mint coins, wage wars, and administer justice. Artist Benjamin West’s 1818 painting immortalized the moment Shah Alam handed the farman (decree) to Clive, symbolizing the Mughal Empire’s surrender to corporate colonialism.

Famine, Corruption, and the Regulating Act

The Company’s extractive policies culminated in the catastrophic Bengal Famine (1769–1773), which killed 10 million as officials profited from grain hoarding. When the Company neared bankruptcy, Parliament passed the 1773 Regulating Act, placing it under state control. The Act created the Governor-General position, first held by Warren Hastings, and marked Britain’s formal transition from trade to territorial rule.

Hastings and the Paradox of Colonial Knowledge

Hastings’ tenure (1773–1785) embodied colonialism’s contradictions. He patronized Sanskrit scholars like William Jones (who linked Sanskrit to European languages) while monopolizing opium production for the China trade. His impeachment trial in Britain—spearheaded by critic Edmund Burke—revealed the brutality underlying “enlightened” imperialism.

Cornwallis and the Racial Turn

Lord Cornwallis (1786–1793) institutionalized racial exclusion, barring Indians from Company posts and enshrining European supremacy. His Permanent Settlement (1793) tied tax revenues to hereditary zamindars (landlords), creating a exploitative agrarian system that endured for centuries.

Legacy: The Corporate Empire’s Blueprint

The mid-18th century power struggles established the template for modern imperialism:
– Debt Diplomacy: Rulers like Muzaffar Jung traded sovereignty for military support, a tactic later used globally.
– Corporate Sovereignty: The East India Company’s diwani rights anticipated today’s multinationals influencing state policies.
– Information Control: Colonial narratives (e.g., the Black Hole myth) justified intervention as “civilizing missions.”

From Hyderabad’s throne wars to Plassey’s backroom deals, 18th-century India witnessed the violent birth of a world order where commerce and conquest became inseparable—a legacy that still shapes global power dynamics.