A Kingdom Divided: The Backdrop of Five Dynasties China

The early 10th century witnessed one of China’s most turbulent periods – the chaotic Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms era following the collapse of the mighty Tang Dynasty. In this fractured landscape, two rival regimes emerged as primary contenders for supremacy: the Later Liang under the Zhu family and the Jin Kingdom (later becoming Later Tang) led by the Li family. The year 917 marked a critical juncture in their decades-long struggle, when an audacious winter crossing of the frozen Yellow River by Li Cunxu would set in motion a series of events that would ultimately determine the fate of northern China.

The strategic importance of the Yellow River in this conflict cannot be overstated. Serving as both natural barrier and highway, its frozen surface in winter created temporary bridges that could make or break military campaigns. Both sides maintained elaborate defense systems along its banks – wooden palisades, garrison towns, and mobile cavalry units ready to respond to any crossing attempt. The river’s behavior dictated the rhythm of warfare, with campaigns often suspended during summer floods only to resume with winter’s freeze.

The Icy Gamble: Li Cunxu’s Winter Offensive

On November 23, 917, with the bitter “Great Cold” solar term gripping northern China, Li Cunxu personally inspected the frozen Yellow River near Yangliu (modern-day Yangnan Village in Dong’e County). Finding the ice sufficiently thick, he made a fateful decision – to launch a surprise winter offensive across the frozen surface with combined infantry and cavalry forces.

The southern bank defenses, though formidable with their interconnected wooden barriers, fell quickly to Li Cunxu’s sudden assault. His forces then turned toward the heavily fortified Yangliu City, garrisoned by 3,000 elite Liang troops. In a display of tactical ingenuity, Li ordered his infantry to cut through the defensive “deer antler” obstacles while using bundled reeds to fill the defensive trenches, allowing a multi-directional assault that captured the city in a single day, taking its commander An Yanzhi prisoner.

This seemingly inexplicable choice to attack Yangliu – geographically distant from the Liang capital at Daliang (modern Kaifeng) – reveals much about Li’s strategic thinking. Contemporary military analysts questioned the move, as the ideal crossing point for striking at the heart of Liang power would have been further west near Huazhou. The decision likely stemmed from unique ice conditions at Yangliu that year, combined with Li’s characteristic preference for bold, unexpected maneuvers over conventional strategy.

The Dance of Death Along the Yellow River

The campaign evolved into a grueling year-long struggle along the Yellow River’s shifting banks. By February 918, Liang forces under the capable commander Xie Yanzhang attempted to counter by deliberately flooding the area around Yangliu, creating a muddy quagmire that immobilized Jin forces for months. This masterful use of environmental warfare forced Li Cunxu into an uncharacteristic pause.

The stalemate broke dramatically on June 21, 918, when receding summer waters revealed a fordable section of the river. In a scene worthy of epic poetry, Li personally led his elite guards across the knee-deep waters, armor gleaming, spears leveled. The resulting mid-river battle saw the Yellow River literally run red with blood as Xie Yanzhang’s forces were routed, though the Liang commander narrowly escaped with his life.

This victory set the stage for the climactic Battle of Huliupo in December 918. What began as a promising Jin advance toward Daliang turned disastrous when Liang forces counterattacked the Jin supply train. The death of Zhou Dewei, Li’s most experienced general, and the near-destruction of the Jin army highlighted both the risks of Li’s impulsive leadership and the remarkable resilience of the Liang state apparatus centered on Daliang.

The Theater of War: Leadership Styles in Contrast

The campaign revealed stark contrasts in military leadership. Li Cunxu embodied the warrior-king archetype, personally leading cavalry charges with almost reckless abandon. His penchant for treating warfare as an elaborate game – memorably dismissing caution with the phrase “old men hinder my play” – both inspired his troops and courted disaster. Contemporary accounts describe him carrying entertainers into battle, including a favored actor named Zhou Za who was captured at Huliupo, only to be rewarded with a governorship upon his eventual return.

In contrast, Liang commanders like Xie Yanzhang represented a more methodical approach, utilizing terrain and environmental engineering to offset numerical disadvantages. The tragic infighting between Liang generals He Gui and Xie Yanzhang, culminating in Xie’s assassination, demonstrated the political fractures undermining Liang’s military efforts. The loss of Xie, described as one of the few Liang commanders who could “command cavalry in unlimited numbers,” proved catastrophic for their cause.

The Human Cost: Rivers of Blood and Broken Alliances

The campaign’s toll was staggering. At Huliupo alone, nearly 30,000 Liang soldiers perished, while Jin forces suffered comparable losses. The battle’s aftermath saw both armies effectively crippled, their infantry corps decimated. Local populations bore the brunt of this devastation, with contemporary records describing terrified civilians in Daliang being forcibly conscripted to man the walls against an expected Jin assault that never came.

The campaign also strained political relationships. Li’s abrupt demotion of Zhou Dewei’s son immediately after the general’s death, and his growing distrust of capable subordinates like Li Siyuan, sowed seeds of future rebellion. Similarly, the Liang court’s inability to maintain unity among its commanders reflected deeper systemic weaknesses.

The Strategic Calculus: Why Daliang Mattered

At the heart of this conflict lay the irreplaceable strategic value of Daliang. As Li’s advisors repeatedly emphasized, the Liang capital served as the “strong heart” of their enemy’s power – a hub of waterways and roads that allowed rapid mobilization of troops and supplies throughout the Central Plains. Contemporary military analysts argued that only by striking directly at this “key point” could the Jin forces achieve decisive victory.

Li’s failure to press his advantage toward Daliang after the Yangliu crossing, and again after Huliupo, represented missed opportunities that would prolong the war for years. The eventual construction of the Desheng fortresses in early 919 – at the ideal crossing point Li had initially ignored – underscored this strategic reality. These twin fortresses, built on opposite banks of the Yellow River, would later gain historical significance as the site of the Song dynasty’s Chanyuan Treaty with the Khitans.

Echoes Through History: Lessons for Future Dynasties

The 917-919 campaign presaged patterns that would recur throughout Chinese history. The vulnerability of Kaifeng (formerly Daliang) to sudden strikes from the north, despite its formidable economic and military resources, would be demonstrated again when the Khitans conquered the Later Jin in 946 and when the Jurchens toppled the Northern Song in 1127. In each case, as with Li Cunxu’s near-success, the centralized nature of power in the capital made the empire susceptible to decapitation strikes.

The campaign also highlighted the enduring importance of the Yellow River in China’s military geography. Its frozen surfaces continued to serve as invasion routes for northern peoples, while its floods could be weaponized by defenders. The elaborate systems of fortifications and signaling stations along its banks established during this period would be maintained and expanded by subsequent dynasties.

The Personal Cost of Imperial Ambition

Beyond grand strategy, the campaign revealed the human dimension of these conflicts. Li Cunxu’s transformation from charismatic leader to isolated autocrat accelerated during this period. His growing paranoia, symbolized by the removal of loyal commanders like Li Jianji, undermined the very military effectiveness that had brought him success. The death of Zhou Dewei – a general who had served the Li family for decades – and Li’s subsequent appropriation of the Zhou family’s base in Youzhou marked a turning point in his reign.

Similarly, the campaign launched the careers of several figures who would shape China’s future. The young officer Shi Jingtang, saved during the fighting by his comrade Liu Zhiyuan, would later found the Later Jin dynasty with Khitan support. Zhao Hongyin, an officer sent by Wang Rong to assist Li’s forces, would become father to the founders of the Song dynasty – the very men who would ultimately reunify China after this period of fragmentation.

Conclusion: The Frozen Moment That Shaped an Era

The winter crossing of 917 and its bloody aftermath represented both the pinnacle and the beginning of the end for Li Cunxu’s military genius. His eventual victory over the Later Liang in 923, achieved through another daring strike at Daliang, could not mask the institutional weaknesses exposed during these campaigns. The same impulsiveness that made him a brilliant tactician rendered him ill-suited for the challenges of governance, contributing to his eventual overthrow.

For historians, this episode encapsulates the paradoxes of the Five Dynasties period – moments of strategic brilliance undermined by personal rivalries, environmental mastery offset by political shortsightedness, and fleeting victories that failed to establish lasting stability. The frozen Yellow River of 917 thus serves as a powerful metaphor for the era itself: a temporary pathway to power that ultimately could not sustain the weight of imperial ambition.