A Defiant Response to Imperial Decree

In the spring of 1839, the bustling foreign trading quarter of Canton simmered with tension. British Superintendent of Trade Charles Elliot received an official communication from the Viceroy of Liangguang through the Cohong merchants, the exclusive intermediaries between foreign traders and Chinese officials. The document contained new restrictions and demands regarding the opium trade that had flourished despite official prohibitions. Elliot immediately summoned British merchants to his factory residence to discuss their response.

The meeting revealed the profound cultural misunderstanding that characterized Sino-Western relations at the time. After deliberation, the merchants concluded that regardless of the seniority of the official China might send, the matter would ultimately resolve itself with sufficient silver changing hands. They believed that once the imperial commissioner departed, business would resume as usual. This cynical assessment reflected years of experience with a system where enforcement of anti-opium regulations had been inconsistent at best.

Elliot had gathered some intelligence about the newly appointed Imperial Commissioner Lin Zexu. The information described Lin as the son of a porcelain workshop owner who had worked in small workshops during his youth, enduring considerable hardship. Elliot warned his colleagues that this background made Lin particularly determined and difficult to manipulate—a departure from the more pliable officials they had previously encountered.

The Merchant’s Arrogance and Miscalculation

William Jardine, the influential Scottish opium trader, dismissed Elliot’s concerns with characteristic bluntness. He declared that no Chinese official, regardless of personal history or reputation, could resist the lure of sufficient silver. Jardine’s statement, “Gentlemen, I have yet to meet a Chinese official who doesn’t love money. Their claims of integrity merely indicate they want to secure a better price,” reflected the profound cultural arrogance that would contribute to the coming conflict.

This exchange highlighted the fundamental disconnect between Western merchants and Chinese officialdom. The British merchants operated within a framework of commercial pragmatism, while Chinese officials existed within a Confucian bureaucratic system where appearances of propriety mattered greatly, even when corruption existed beneath the surface. The unanimous decision to ignore the Viceroy’s communication through the Cohong system represented a critical miscalculation that would have severe consequences.

Rumors Sweep Through Canton

While foreign merchants dismissed the official communications, the city of Canton buzzed with rumors and speculation about the impending arrival of Imperial Commissioner Lin Zexu. Popular stories circulated that the Emperor had dispatched dozens of imperial investigators who had already infiltrated Canton. These agents had supposedly compiled detailed records of everyone involved in the opium trade—from high-ranking provincial officials down to yamen clerks and merchants operating opium establishments.

The most dramatic rumor claimed that Lin Zexu carried the Emperor’s symbolic sword, granting him authority to execute corrupt officials without consultation. According to street talk, his first victim would be none other than Deng Tingzhen, the very official who currently governed the region. Whether based in fact or fantasy, these rumors created a palpable shift in the political atmosphere throughout Canton.

The Changing Political Winds

The rumor mill produced immediate practical effects. Officials of all ranks suddenly sought ways to demonstrate their commitment to eradicating opium, hoping to distinguish themselves before the Imperial Commissioner’s arrival. Those who had previously benefited from the opium trade now distanced themselves from their former associates. Government offices became fortresses of apparent compliance as officials who had once openly consorted with opium traders now refused to leave their yamens.

The change proved most visible in the foreign trading quarter. Chinese clerks, servants, and minor officials who had previously moved freely through the factories suddenly disappeared. The absence of these familiar figures created an eerie atmosphere in the quarter, signaling that established patterns of interaction were breaking down. The foreign community found itself increasingly isolated, though many merchants remained confident that the storm would pass.

A Public Execution and Its Consequences

The tension reached a dramatic climax one afternoon when the Guangzhou Prefect ordered the public execution of opium dealer He Laojin in the small square before the foreign factories. The case represented a significant enforcement action—He Laojin’s organization included thirty members, five fast “crab” boats specializing in transporting opium from receiving ships at Lintin Island, three opium storage facilities, and two smoking establishments. Though sentenced to death months earlier, the execution had been delayed until this strategically chosen moment.

Deng Tingzhen had specifically ordered the execution at this location to send a message to the foreign community. The timing—3:00 PM—coincided with when foreigners typically gathered in the square or walked their dogs along the Pearl River, ensuring maximum visibility. As crowds gathered, He Laojin displayed remarkable composure. Of unimpressive stature and appearance, with features sharpened by opium use, he nevertheless demonstrated what observers described as “gangster spirit.”

His final words became part of Canton lore: “I’ve eaten what I should eat, drunk what I should drink, and enjoyed what I should enjoy. My life has been worth living. In twenty years, I’ll be reborn a hero.” He made an unusual final request—instead of the traditional farewell wine, he asked for one final opium smoke. The supervising official granted his wish, and He Laojin took several puffs before remarking, “One smoke truly surpasses the joy of immortal beings. Unfortunately, this thing shortens one’s lifespan.” He then offered unexpected advice to the official: “Your Honor who supervises my execution, I don’t resent you for killing me, but let me warn you—this thing first captures your soul, then addicts you, and finally takes your life. Don’t let your own family members start smoking it.”

Confrontation at the Factories

Just as the executioner prepared to carry out the sentence, several British merchants arrived and began dispersing the crowd. They protested that the Chinese government had no right to conduct an execution in what they considered their rented space—an area they used for recreation. As arguments intensified, fifty or sixty British sailors came ashore from their ships and joined the confrontation, physically pushing the execution party out of the square.

Someone in the crowd shouted, “Imperial Commissioner Lin is coming soon, and these foreigners still dare to act so unreasonably? Drive them out of Canton!” The cry ignited the assembled masses. The crowd surged toward the foreign factories, knocking down fences and shattering windows with stones. The newly arrived sailors, recognizing the danger, hastily returned to their ships and departed. Foreign merchants trapped inside the factories barricaded doors and used whatever materials they could find to reinforce their defenses.

The Siege of the Foreign Quarter

Rather than storming the buildings, the crowd surrounded the factories in a dramatic display of public anger. Some shouted insults at the foreigners, while others wept or told stories of how opium had devastated their families. As evening fell, they lit torches, forming a semicircle of fire around the compound. The scene created a powerful visual manifestation of Chinese popular sentiment against the opium trade and those who profited from it.

Charles Elliot dispatched an interpreter with a formal protest to the Viceroy, condemning the siege of the factories. Deng Tingzhen had learned of the situation hours earlier but adopted a calculated response. He believed allowing foreigners to witness the depth of popular anger might serve Chinese interests, provided the situation didn’t spiral out of control. His instructions to the Guangzhou Prefect emphasized maintaining boundaries—the demonstration should make an impression but not devolve into uncontrollable violence. Officials were to ensure the crowd returned to the city before the gates closed for the night.

The Aftermath and Implications

The crowd, having exhausted itself through hours of protest, gradually dispersed when officials encouraged them to return to the city. For the merchants inside the factories, the immediate danger had passed, but the event marked a turning point in their relationship with both Chinese officials and the local population. Representatives from American, French, and Italian trading companies gathered at Elliot’s residence to discuss their response to the day’s events.

The siege of the factories represented more than an isolated protest—it signaled that the longstanding accommodation between foreign traders and Chinese society was unraveling. The demonstration had occurred with at least tacit official approval, suggesting that previous patterns of corruption and tolerance would no longer protect the opium trade. The foreign community faced a new reality in which both popular sentiment and official policy were turning decisively against them.

Historical Context and Legacy

The events of early 1839 occurred against the backdrop of decades of growing tension between China and Western trading powers. The Chinese imperial government had become increasingly concerned about the silver outflow caused by the opium trade and the social problems associated with widespread addiction. The appointment of Lin Zexu represented the Daoguang Emperor’s determination to address these issues decisively.

The foreign merchants’ miscalculation reflected their failure to understand the changing political dynamics in Beijing. Previous emperors had shown varying levels of concern about the opium trade, but the Daoguang Emperor had become convinced that drastic action was necessary. Lin Zexu’s reputation as an incorruptible official made him the ideal candidate to implement the new policy.

The confrontation at Canton would escalate in the coming months, leading to Lin Zexu’s famous destruction of confiscated opium and ultimately to the First Opium War. The conflict would fundamentally reshape China’s relationship with the West and mark the beginning of what Chinese historians would later term the “Century of Humiliation.”

The day’s events also revealed the complex interplay between official policy and popular sentiment in Qing China. While the imperial government maintained strict control over society, officials like Deng Tingzhen recognized the strategic value of allowing controlled expressions of public anger. The demonstration at the factories showed that opposition to the opium trade extended beyond government circles to include ordinary Cantonese residents whose lives had been affected by the drug’s spread.

In retrospect, the spring of 1839 marked the point where diplomatic solutions became increasingly unlikely. The foreign merchants’ refusal to take Chinese regulations seriously, combined with their reliance on military protection, set the stage for armed conflict. The Chinese government’s determination to enforce its laws, backed by popular support, created a collision course that would have profound consequences for all involved.

The legacy of these events extends beyond the immediate historical context. They represent an early example of the cultural clashes that would characterize China’s engagement with the West throughout the nineteenth century. The different understandings of sovereignty, trade, and international relations revealed during these tense days in Canton would continue to shape East-West relations for generations to come.