The Flourishing of Literary Compilation in Qing China

The Qing Dynasty (1644-1912) witnessed an unprecedented surge in the compilation of reference works and literary collections, marking a distinctive characteristic of its scholarly achievements. This period saw both imperial-sponsored and privately compiled works that would become cornerstones of Chinese literary tradition. The ruling Manchu elite, despite their foreign origins, demonstrated remarkable enthusiasm for Chinese literary culture, sponsoring massive projects that would systematize and preserve the vast corpus of Chinese knowledge.

Two primary forms dominated these scholarly endeavors: leishu (类书), comprehensive encyclopedias that categorized knowledge by subject, and congshu (丛书), collectanea or series that gathered complete works under common themes. These monumental projects served multiple purposes – they demonstrated imperial patronage of scholarship, provided practical reference tools for officials and scholars, and helped consolidate Manchu rule through cultural assimilation.

The Encyclopedia Tradition: From Practical Guides to Imperial Magnum Opus

The encyclopedia tradition in China dates back to the Tang Dynasty, but reached its zenith during the Qing period. Among numerous encyclopedias produced, several stand out for their scope and quality. Official compilations included the Yuanjian Leihan (渊鉴类函) edited by Zhang Ying, the Fenlei Zijin (分类字锦) by He Zhuo, and the Zishi Jinghua (子史精华) compiled by Zhang Tingyu. Private scholars contributed equally significant works like Chen Yuanlong’s Gezhi Jingyuan (格致镜原) and Pan Yongyin’s Songbai Leichao (宋稗类钞).

The crowning achievement of Qing encyclopedia compilation was undoubtedly the Gujin Tushu Jicheng (古今图书集成, Complete Collection of Illustrations and Writings from the Earliest to Current Times). Conceived and initially compiled by Chen Menglei between 1700-1706 while tutoring the Kangxi Emperor’s third son, this massive work originally titled “Huibian” (汇编) organized knowledge into six major categories, 32 divisions, and over 6,109 sections.

The Turbulent History of the Complete Collection

Chen Menglei’s monumental work took an unexpected political turn with the succession crisis following Kangxi’s death. When the Yongzheng Emperor ascended the throne in 1722, Chen fell from favor due to his association with rival princes. The new emperor commissioned Jiang Tingxi to revise the encyclopedia, completing the work in 1725 with significant alterations – reducing it to 10,000 chapters and renaming the 32 “zhi” (志) divisions to “dian” (典). The final printed version in 1726 bore Jiang’s name as chief editor, effectively erasing Chen’s primary authorship.

The first edition, printed using imperial copper movable type between 1726-1728, produced only 64 copies plus one specimen. Later editions included an 1888 Shanghai lead-type edition (1,500 copies), an 1894 photographic reprint (100 copies), and a 1934 reduced-size photographic edition by Zhonghua Book Company in Shanghai.

Unparalleled Structure and Utility

The Complete Collection’s organizational system represented a quantum leap in reference works. Its six main categories (Cosmology, Geography, Human Relations, Natural History, Philosophy, and Economics) subdivided into 32 divisions and 6,109 sections. Each section contained:
– Historical examinations (汇考)
– General discussions (总论)
– Charts and illustrations (图表)
– Biographies (列传)
– Literary selections (艺文)
– Notable quotations (选句)
– Historical accounts (纪事)
– Miscellaneous records (杂录)
– Supplementary materials (外编)

This meticulous structure made information retrieval significantly more efficient than previous encyclopedias, while its comprehensive coverage – including nearly all content from the Thirteen Classics and Twenty-One Histories – made it an indispensable scholarly resource.

Global Recognition and Lasting Influence

The Complete Collection gained international acclaim, with foreign scholars often treating it as primary source material. Several indexes were created to facilitate its use. Chinese scholars typically used it as a research starting point before consulting original sources. As academic research progresses, its value continues to grow, serving as both historical record and research tool.

The Collectanea Revolution: Preserving Complete Works

Building upon Ming Dynasty foundations, Qing scholars elevated collectanea compilation to new heights of quality and scope. Notable improvements included:
– Careful selection of superior editions
– Meticulous textual collation
– Focus on rare and academically valuable works
– Geographic diversity of compilation centers

Prominent private collectanea included Cao Rong’s Xuehai Leibian (学海类编), Wang Shihan’s Secret Books in Twenty-One Categories (秘书二十一种), Lu Wenchao’s Baojingtang Congshu (抱经堂丛书), and Bao Tingbo’s Zhibuzuzhai Congshu (知不足斋丛书).

The Four Treasures: China’s Greatest Bibliographic Project

The most ambitious literary project of the Qing era was undoubtedly the Siku Quanshu (四库全书, Complete Library of the Four Treasuries). Initiated by the Qianlong Emperor in 1772, this decade-long endeavor aimed to collect, evaluate, and preserve China’s entire literary heritage.

The project began with empire-wide book collection campaigns in 1741, 1772, and 1777. In 1778, the emperor established the Siku Quanshu Editorial Office at the Hanlin Academy, appointing Ji Yun and Lu Xixiong as chief editors, with Shao Jinhan, Dai Zhen, and Zhou Yongnian as principal compilers. Over 300 scholars and thousands of scribes participated in this colossal undertaking.

The Seven Imperial Libraries

Between 1781-1787, seven manuscript copies were produced and stored in specially constructed libraries:
1. Wenyuan Pavilion (1781) – Forbidden City
2. Wensu Pavilion (1782) – Shenyang
3. Wenyuan Pavilion (1783) – Old Summer Palace
4. Wenjin Pavilion (1784) – Chengde Mountain Resort
Three additional copies (1787) were housed in southern libraries for scholar access

Complementary Works and Critical Apparatus

The project generated several auxiliary works:
– The Annotated Catalog (四库全书总目): Completed in 1781, revised until 1793, this critical bibliography provided detailed summaries and evaluations of over 10,000 works (3,461 included, 6,793 listed)
– Simplified Catalog (四库全书简明目录): A 20-volume abridged version for quick reference
– Essential Collection (四库全书荟要): A 464-work condensed version completed in 1778 for imperial use

Cultural Impact and Historical Legacy

The Siku project had profound cultural consequences:
1. Preservation: Saved hundreds of works from the Yongle Encyclopedia and other sources
2. Standardization: Established authoritative texts for many classics
3. Dissemination: Multiple copies ensured wide geographic distribution
4. Scholarship: The annotated catalog became a model for bibliographic criticism

However, the project also had significant limitations:
– Political censorship: Works deemed anti-Qing or heterodox were destroyed or altered
– Philosophical bias: Overrepresentation of Neo-Confucian works
– Textual errors: Transcription mistakes and incomplete collation
– Organizational flaws: Discrepancies between catalog entries and actual contents

Enduring Scholarly Value

Despite its flaws, the Siku Quanshu remains an indispensable resource for Chinese studies. Modern scholars like Yu Jiaxi (四库提要辨证) and Hu Yujin (四库全书总目提要补正) have produced critical works correcting its errors. The project’s classification system and analytical methods continue to influence Chinese bibliography.

These Qing compilation projects represent both the pinnacle of traditional Chinese scholarship and a complex intersection of cultural preservation and political control. They stand as testaments to the Qing emperors’ dual role as patrons of learning and arbiters of orthodoxy, leaving a legacy that continues to shape our understanding of China’s literary heritage.