Introduction: A New Era Under Qianlong

In 1735, the Yongzheng Emperor, known for his diligence and stern governance, passed away, leaving the throne to his son, who would reign as the Qianlong Emperor. Unlike his father, who had navigated a path to power marked by bloodshed and political strife, Qianlong inherited a stable and prosperous empire. His reign began amid peace and opulence, allowing him to adopt the demeanor of a cultured aristocrat, fond of leisure, literary pursuits, and grand projects that would immortalize his legacy. This period of Qing Dynasty history is often remembered as a golden age, characterized by economic strength, territorial expansion, and significant cultural achievements, all under the watchful eye of an emperor who saw himself as both a patron of the arts and a guardian of Confucian values.

Qianlong’s early years on the throne were shaped by the stability his father had secured through administrative reforms and centralized control. With no immediate threats to his authority, the emperor devoted himself to activities that reflected his self-image as a scholar and aesthete. He embarked on numerous tours of the empire’s scenic regions, composed poetry, and commissioned vast architectural and cultural projects. These endeavors were not merely personal indulgences but strategic efforts to bolster his image as a ruler whose virtue and wisdom had ushered in an era of unparalleled peace and prosperity. It was within this context that one of the most ambitious literary projects in Chinese history would take shape: the compilation of the Siku Quanshu, or the Complete Library of the Four Treasuries.

The Genesis of the Four Treasuries Project

By 1772, Qianlong had ruled for nearly four decades, and the empire was indeed experiencing a period of remarkable stability. Natural disasters were few, harvests were abundant, and the borders were secure. In the emperor’s view, such an era of peace and prosperity demanded a cultural monument that would stand as a testament to the greatness of his reign. He found inspiration in the Yongle Emperor of the Ming Dynasty, who had commissioned the Yongle Encyclopedia, a massive compendium of knowledge intended to showcase the intellectual and cultural achievements of his time. Qianlong, however, envisioned something even grander—a comprehensive collection that would surpass all previous literary endeavors.

When court officials, eager to flatter the emperor, suggested that he outshone the Yongle Emperor and deserved a more monumental work, Qianlong readily agreed. He proposed the title Siku Quanshu, meaning the Complete Library of the Four Treasuries, which would encompass all significant works of literature, history, philosophy, and the sciences, organized into four traditional categories. The project was launched with great fanfare, reflecting Qianlong’s desire to create an unparalleled cultural legacy that would demonstrate the superiority of his reign and the Qing Dynasty’s commitment to preserving and advancing knowledge.

The emperor’s motivation was not solely cultural; there were political dimensions as well. By overseeing such a vast scholarly undertaking, Qianlong aimed to reinforce Confucian ideals, promote orthodoxy, and subtly suppress works that might challenge Qing authority or contain subversive ideas. The compilation process would involve not only collecting and preserving texts but also evaluating and sometimes altering them to align with state-sanctioned values. This dual purpose—celebrating cultural achievement while asserting ideological control—would define the project from its inception.

The Mastermind Behind the Compilation: Ji Xiaolan

To lead this monumental effort, Qianlong appointed Ji Yun, better known as Ji Xiaolan, a high-ranking official and renowned scholar of the time. Ji was a figure of immense intellect and wit, celebrated for his literary talents and administrative acumen. As the chief editor of the Siku Quanshu, he faced the herculean task of coordinating thousands of scholars, collecting texts from across the empire, and ensuring the accuracy and coherence of the final compilation. His role required not only scholarly rigor but also diplomatic skill, as he navigated the complexities of court politics and the emperor’s high expectations.

Ji Xiaolan’s daily life during the project was one of relentless labor. He spent long hours in his office, reviewing manuscripts, making corrections, and managing the contributions of other editors. The work was exhausting, particularly given the scale of the undertaking—the Siku Quanshu would eventually comprise over 36,000 volumes, containing more than 3,400 works copied by hand. Ji’s dedication was unwavering, but the physical and mental demands were immense, especially for a man known for his large stature and discomfort in the heat.

One famously hot summer afternoon, with temperatures soaring during the dog days of the year, Ji found himself alone in his office. Believing he had a moment of privacy, he shed his formal robes, working in nothing but his undergarments, fanning himself with a large palm-leaf fan as he focused on the manuscripts before him. Unbeknownst to him, the emperor, who took a personal interest in the progress of the project, had decided to pay an unannounced visit. Qianlong, accompanied by a eunuch, peered through the window and saw Ji in his disheveled state. Amused by the scholar’s informal attire, the emperor signaled to the eunuch to announce his presence abruptly.

The sudden cry of “The Emperor has arrived!” sent Ji into a panic. With no time to dress, he scrambled under the large desk in his office, hoping to hide until the emperor departed. Qianlong, having witnessed the entire episode, entered the room and sat down at the desk, determined to see how long Ji would remain in hiding. After what felt like an eternity, Ji, suffocating from the heat and confinement, peeked out and asked, “Has the old man left yet?” The emperor, feigning outrage, demanded an explanation for the disrespectful term.

Ji, quick-witted as ever, responded with a clever justification: “Your Majesty is called ‘Wansui’ , so you are ‘old’; you are the head of the state, so you are the ‘head’; and you are the son of heaven, so you are a ‘son’. Together, that makes ‘old-head-son’.” Amused by this display of rhetorical skill, Qianlong laughed and forgave Ji, even presenting him with an imperial fan as a token of appreciation. This anecdote, whether entirely factual or embellished over time, captures the dynamic between the emperor and his chief editor—a relationship marked by mutual respect, intellectual jousting, and the shared pursuit of a cultural masterpiece.

The Transformation of the Grand Secretariat

While the Siku Quanshu project unfolded, another significant administrative evolution was taking place within the Qing government—the rise of the Grand Council. This institution had its origins in the Yongzheng era, when in 1729, the emperor established the Military Affairs Office to oversee campaigns in the northwest. Initially a temporary body focused on military strategy, it was reorganized by Qianlong in 1737 into a permanent central authority known as the Grand Council. Under Qianlong’s direction, the council became the supreme organ of state power, effectively replacing the traditional Grand Secretariat as the core of executive decision-making.

Qianlong appointed senior officials like Ortai and Zhang Tingyu as Grand Councilors, consolidating authority in this new body. The number of councilors varied over time, starting with three, expanding to seven, and at its peak, including eleven members. This flexibility allowed the emperor to adapt the council to the needs of the empire, ensuring efficient governance and rapid response to crises. The Grand Council handled a wide range of responsibilities, from military affairs and foreign policy to domestic administration and judicial matters, making it the nerve center of Qing bureaucracy.

The significance of this transformation cannot be overstated. By centralizing power in the Grand Council, Qianlong strengthened imperial control over the state apparatus, reducing the influence of traditional aristocratic factions and enhancing the efficiency of governance. This shift also reflected broader trends in Qing administration, where pragmatic adaptations often accompanied ideological conservatism. Later prominent figures, including Zuo Zongtang, Zhang Zhidong, and Yuan Shikai, would serve as Grand Councilors, underscoring the enduring importance of this institution in Chinese political history.

Cultural Impact and Historical Legacy

The compilation of the Siku Quanshu was more than a literary achievement; it was a cultural phenomenon that shaped the intellectual landscape of the Qing Dynasty. The project involved the collection, evaluation, and reproduction of countless texts, many of which might have been lost to history otherwise. However, it was also a tool of ideological control. Works deemed subversive or critical of the Manchu rulers were excluded, altered, or destroyed, leading to what some scholars have called a “literary inquisition.” This dual legacy—preservation and suppression—highlights the complex interplay between culture and power in imperial China.

For Qianlong, the Siku Quanshu was the crowning glory of his reign, a symbol of the empire’s cultural sophistication and his personal patronage of the arts. It reinforced his image as a sage ruler, whose virtue had brought about a true golden age. The completion of the work in 1782, after a decade of effort, was celebrated with great ceremony, and multiple copies were deposited in libraries across the country, though access was restricted to the elite. The project also stimulated scholarly activity, fostering a revival of classical learning and setting standards for textual criticism that would influence generations of academics.

Yet, the emperor’s motives were not purely altruistic. By controlling the narrative of cultural production, Qianlong sought to legitimize Qing rule and promote a unified orthodoxy that served state interests. This approach had lasting consequences, both positive and negative. On one hand, it preserved a vast corpus of knowledge; on the other, it stifled dissent and limited intellectual diversity. The Siku Quanshu remains a subject of scholarly debate, admired for its scope and ambition but also critiqued for its role in enforcing ideological conformity.

Personalities and Anecdotes: Humanizing History

The story of Ji Xiaolan and the “old man” incident offers a glimpse into the human side of these historical figures, reminding us that behind grand projects and political reforms were individuals with quirks, humor, and vulnerabilities. Ji, often depicted in folklore as a quick-thinking and jovial character, was indeed a prolific scholar and a heavy smoker, earning him the nickname “Ji the Big Tobacco Pouch.” His tobacco habit was so well-known that it became part of his legend, symbolizing both his intellectual intensity and his earthy, approachable nature.

Such anecdotes enrich our understanding of the period, illustrating the personal dynamics that influenced historical events. Qianlong, though an absolute monarch, engaged with his officials in ways that reflected Confucian ideals of ruler-minister harmony, where wit and wisdom could sometimes outweigh strict protocol. These stories, passed down through oral tradition and literature, have become an integral part of China’s cultural heritage, blending historical fact with myth to create enduring narratives about leadership, creativity, and the pursuit of knowledge.

Conclusion: The Enduring Legacy of Qianlong’s Vision

The reign of the Qianlong Emperor stands as a pivotal chapter in Chinese history, marked by territorial expansion, economic prosperity, and cultural flourishing. The Siku Quanshu project and the reform of the Grand Council exemplify the emperor’s dual focus on reinforcing ideological control and promoting intellectual achievement. While his methods sometimes involved suppression and censorship, they also preserved a rich literary tradition that continues to be studied and appreciated today.

Qianlong’s legacy is a tapestry of contradictions—a ruler who celebrated culture while constraining it, who embraced innovation in governance while upholding conservative values. His reign represents both the zenith of Qing power and the beginning of its gradual decline, as challenges from within and without would eventually test the empire’s resilience. Yet, through projects like the Siku Quanshu, Qianlong ensured that his vision of a prosperous, orderly, and culturally sophisticated empire would endure in the historical record, offering future generations a window into the ambitions and achievements of one of China’s most iconic rulers.